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Glyptodon - Wikipedia

Glyptodon
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Not to be confused with Glyptodont, any member of the subfamily Glyptodontinae.
Glyptodon

Temporal range: Pleistocene (Uquian–Lujanian)
~2.500–0.011 Ma
PreꞒ

Fossil specimen at the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cingulata
Family: Chlamyphoridae
Subfamily: †Glyptodontinae
Genus: †Glyptodon
Owen, 1839[1]
Species

†G. clavipes Owen, 1839 (type)
†G. elongatus Burmeister, 1866
†G. euphractus Lund, 1839
†G. jatunkhirkhi Cuadrelli et al., 2020[2]
†G. munizi Ameghino, 1881
†G. petaliferus Cope, 1888[3]
†G. reticulatus Owen, 1845
†G. rivapacis Hay, 1923[4]

Glyptodon (from Greek for "grooved or carved tooth": γλυπτός "sculptured" and ὀδοντ-, ὀδούς "tooth")[5] was a genus of large, heavily armored mammals of the subfamily Glyptodontinae (glyptodonts or glyptodontines) – relatives of armadillos – that lived during the Pleistocene epoch. It was roughly the same size and weight as a Volkswagen Beetle. With its rounded, bony shell and squat limbs, it superficially resembled a turtle, and the much earlier dinosaurian ankylosaur – providing an example of the convergent evolution of unrelated lineages into similar forms.[6][7] In 2016 an analysis of Doedicurus mtDNA found it was, in fact, nested within the modern armadillos as the sister group of a clade consisting of Chlamyphorinae and Tolypeutinae.[8][9] For this reason, glyptodonts and all armadillos but Dasypus were relocated to a new family, Chlamyphoridae, and glyptodonts were demoted from the former family Glyptodontidae to a subfamily.

Contents
1Discovery
1.1Naming of Glyptodon
2Evolution
3Geography and habitat
4Feeding habits
5Behavior
6Anatomy
6.1Skull
6.2Osteoderms
6.3Carapace
6.4Tail
6.5Spine
6.6Eyesight
7Predation
8Extinction
9See also
10References
11External links
Discovery[edit]

Although Darwin is said to have found the first fossils of glyptodontines (the subfamily), the first mention of the genus Glyptodon in Europe was in 1823, from the first edition of Cuvier's "Ossemens Fossiles".[10] The then unnamed Glyptodon was briefly mentioned in a letter from Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga. He had found "a femur... It was about seven pounds, and maybe six or eight inches wide", as well as part of a tail.[10] At the time, the discovery was believed to have belonged to Megatherium, a type of giant ground sloth. A man named Sellow found some carapace plates in three-foot deep clay in Uruguay four years later. That discovery only made the professors even more certain that the discoveries were of Megatherium, since the bones of this prehistoric giant sloth were usually found in similar conditions and Cuvier had said that the genus was loricated.[10]

Some believed that the armor resembled that of the modern armadillo, but the popular opinion was the Megatherium theory. It was not until Professor E. D’Alton wrote a memoir to the Berlin Academy in 1833 comparing the extreme similarities of these mysterious fossils to that of the armadillo, that the scientific world seriously considered that the pieces of carapaces and fragments of bone could belong to some prehistoric version of Dasypus. D’Alton said that "all the peculiarities of the former [Dasypus] may be paralleled to the latter [fossil pieces]"[10] He concluded that the fossils belonged to some prehistoric version of an armadillo. However, since a full skeleton was not available at the time, he said that his idea was not conclusive. This uncertainty in the fossil remains continued until a man named Dr. Lund identified the remains as a new genus in his 1837 memoir.[10]
Naming of Glyptodon[edit]

Richard Owen's 1839 reconstruction of a Glyptodon skeleton; teeth at right

When scholars first acknowledged the genus Glyptodon, there was not a consensus on its name. In 1837 Dr. Lund, a professor who wrote a memoir on Brazil's ancient fauna, suggested these creatures be recognized as the new genus "Hoplophorus". In 1838, another scientist, Professor Bronn, published in the second edition of his book Lethaea Geognostica a proposal for the new genus to be called "Chlamydotherium". In Professor D’Alton's 1839 memoir, it was called "Pachypus". The director at the Museum of Natural History in Dijon at the time, M.L. Nodot, had named the genus "Schistopleuron".[11]

It was finally given a single name when English scholar Richard Owen noticed the similarities of the genera his colleagues were describing in their publications. Owen realized they were all the same genus from their depictions, from carapace to tooth structure. He decided on "Glyptodon", which means "grooved or carved tooth". The name was originally coined by Sir Woodbine Parish, the man who had sent some Glyptodon fossils to Europe. Those fragments of carapace and bones he sent had been heavily studied at the time and had assisted in the recognition of the new genus.[11]

After unifying the name of this genus, Owen continued working on its taxonomy. In 1845, after analyzing the fossils of his colleagues, he named four species within the genus: G. clavipes, G. reticulatus, G. ornatus, and G. tuberculatus.[11]
Evolution[edit]

Glyptodon is part of the superorder of placental mammals known as Xenarthra. This clade of mammals also includes anteaters, tree sloths, armadillos, and extinct ground sloths and pampatheres.
Geography and habitat[edit]

Glyptodon head restoration, Munich

Glyptodon originated in South America. Their remains have been found in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Of the Glyptodon species attributed to remains discovered in Brazil, G. clavipes had the largest range. Its distribution includes north, northeast, and southeast Brazil. G. reticulatus remains have only been found in southern Brazil.[10]

Due to poor morphological and taxonomic understanding, many of the species of the genus and their ranges have not been identified. Countries such as Bolivia, Paraguay and western Uruguay have been recently discovered to have accommodated Glyptodontidae. Material previously assigned to Glyptodon in northeast Brazil has been reassigned to Glyptotherium, restricting the distribution of Glyptodon to the southern region of Brazil. However, two osteoderms with characteristics similar to those of Glyptodon have been recently found in Sergipe state in the northeast, suggesting that both genera occurred in this region during the Pleistocene.[10]

The environments range from forested areas, sub-forested, to warm and humid, while some have become accustomed to open, cold areas where grasslands are the most common. The occurrence of the genus has also been observed in the southwestern part of the Amazon basin, which suggests that the wide diversity of the genus was due to the diverse climates within its range.[12]

During the Great American Interchange, a set of migrations that occurred after North and South America were connected by the rising of the volcanic Isthmus of Panama, Glyptodon migrated into Central America as far as Guatemala.[13] A closely related genus, Glyptotherium, reached the southern region of the modern U.S. about 2.5 million years ago.[14]
Feeding habits[edit]

Skull in side view

Two main groups of glyptodonts can be distinguished by their feeding habits. Smaller-sized early Miocene propalaehoplophorids had narrow muzzles,[15] while larger post-Miocene glyptodonts developed wider muzzles. The smaller glyptodonts were selective feeders, while the larger glyptodonts were bulk feeders. However, because of their body form and fusion of the cervical vertebrae, all members of Glyptodon would have needed to forage near the ground. Their craniomandibular joint limited their jaw to side-to-side movement.[16]

Teeth

The feeding habits of Glyptodon, based on their jaw morphology, were herbivorous. Glyptodon had an "elaboration of the osteodentine ridges in their jaw that provided an effective grinding mill, causing the food particles to be pushed and sheared through constant motion of the mandible, allowing Glyptodon to consume their dietary needs." They had a well-developed snout musculature, along with a mobile neck region that helped them secure food.[17]

Like most other xenarthrans, glyptodonts had lower energy requirements than most other mammals. They could survive with lower intake rates than other herbivores with similar mass.[18]

Glyptodon grazed near water sources such as rivers and lakes. Based on stable isotope analysis, it is evident that its diet consisted primarily of dicotyledonous trees and monocotyledonous grasses.[19]
Behavior[edit]

Glyptodonts are believed to have taken part in intraspecific fighting. Zoologists presume that since the tail of Glyptodon was very flexible and had rings of bony plates, it was used as a weapon in fights. Although its tail could be used for defense against predators, evidence suggests that the tail of Glyptodon was primarily for attacks on its own kind. A G. reticulatus fossil displays damage done on the surface of its carapace. A group of zoologists calculated the amount of force required to break the carapace of Glyptodon. The calculation showed that Glyptodon tails would be able to break the carapace. Glyptodon likely fought each other to settle territorial or mating disputes, much like male-to-male fighting among deer using their antlers. [20]
Anatomy[edit]

Artist's conception

Glyptodon measured 3.3 metres (11 ft) in length, 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in height and weighed up to 2 tonnes (4,400 lb).
Skull[edit]

The nasal passage was reduced with heavy muscle attachments for some unknown purpose. Some have speculated that the muscle attachments were for a proboscis, or trunk, much like that of a tapir or elephant. The lower jaws were very deep and helped support massive chewing muscles to help chew coarse fibrous plants. Teeth resembled those of an armadillo, but were fluted on each side by deep grooves. The anterior teeth were compressed, while the posterior teeth were cylindrical.[21] A distinctive bar of bone projects downwards on the cheek, extending over the lower jaw, perhaps providing an anchor for powerful snout muscles. Another suggestion, made by A.E. Zurita and colleagues, is that the large nasal sinuses could be correlated with the cold arid climate of Pleistocene South America.[22][23]
Osteoderms[edit]

Close-up view of carapace

Before the Pleistocene, Glyptodon’s osteoderms were attached by syntoses and were found in double or triple rows on the front and sides of the carapace's edges, as well as in the tail armor and cephalic shield. The carapace's osteoderms were conical with a rounded point, while the ones on the tail were just conical. The sulci between these raised structures were deep and wide with parallel lines.[24]

In the early 2000s, the presence of osteoderms on Glyptodon’s face, hind legs, and underside was confirmed in several species. The fossils with these characteristics were from the Pleistocene. These small to medium-sized ossicles were actually embedded in the dermis and did not connect in a pattern.[24]

The appearance of this new trait coincides with the arrival of North American predators in South America as part of the Great American Interchange, after the two continents became connected about three million years ago. For this reason, some scientists hypothesize that the osteoderms developed as a defensive/offensive mechanism. This belief is furthered by the discovery of fractured dorsal armor, which implies that Glyptodon had been in physical conflict with other species.[24]
Carapace[edit]

Glyptodon skeleton and shell in Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin

Glyptodon carapace in Hungarian Natural History Museum

It was covered by a protective shell composed of more than 1,000 2.5 cm-thick bony plates, called osteoderms or scutes. Each species of glyptodont had its own unique osteoderm pattern and shell type. With this protection, they were armored like turtles. Unlike most turtles, glyptodonts could not withdraw their heads, but instead had a bony cap on the top of their skull. Even the tail of Glyptodon had a ring of bones for protection. Such a massive shell needed considerable support, evidenced by features such as fused vertebrae, short but massive limbs, and a broad shoulder girdle.[25]
Tail[edit]

Armor at end of tail

Glyptodon clavipes had a tail covered in free bony rings of dermal structures that made for a strong, flexible, and mobile appendix. This enabled it to use the muscles along its tail to powerfully swing it.[26] (The rings in other glyptodonts' tails were fused together, making the tail a single piece of rigid bone; an example of this is Doedicurus.[26])

The accessory ring, or caudal ring 1 has a short double row of small scutes. The proximal row has several small pentagonal scutes; the distal row includes more large pentagonal scutes than the caudal row. The scutes on the proximal row have convex shape, and each scute supports a pair of hair follicles. Ring 2 is the first complete caudal ring and it is the largest ring. It is consisted by two complete rows of firmly sutured scutes. The distal/ending scutes are larger, and their free margins are rounded producing a fanlike shape. Ring 3, the second complete ring, is almost the same as ring 2 except the smaller size and some of the scutes at the ending row reach the proximal margin, crowding the proximal scutes and making the proximal row incomplete despite the same number of 20 scutes in both rows. Rings 4–10 have decreasing diameters and increasing maximum length at the back (from 4 to 10). The rings have double rows, and have decreasing number of scutes in each row from ring 4 to ring 10.[17]

Glyptodon may have used their tails in competition for resources and also as an ornament when competing for sexual partners.
Spine[edit]

Glyptodon had thirteen consecutive vertebrae. Four of the thirteen anterior vertebrae are so close together that they are barely discernible. The other vertebrae are connected by sutures, which become farther apart the closer they are to the posterior. Each centrum is a thin bony plate that curves in such a way that that forms a hollow cylinder. The cylinder in the vertebrae is much larger in diameter near the front rather than the hinder vertebrae. The foremost vertebra is as wide as the posterior part of the trivertebral bone; the following vertebrae narrow rapidly until the fourth vertebra, which is no more than three-fifths as wide as the first.[27]
Eyesight[edit]

Rod monochromacy is a rare condition characterized by the absence of cone photoreceptor cells in the eyes of vertebrates. It results in colorblindness and low acuity vision in dim-light conditions and blindness in bright-light conditions. Xenarthrans most likely only used vision at night, during twilight, and while in burrows. However, the understory of South America's rainforests may have been dark enough during the day to facilitate limited vision for species that dwelled there. Extinct glyptodonts' tough carapace and large body size might have compensated for their inability to see approaching predators.[28]
Predation[edit]

Humans hunting Glyptodon, by Heinrich Harder

Glyptodon may have been preyed upon by animals such as the saber-toothed cats Smilodon and Homotherium, the giant short-faced bear Arctotherium, dire wolves and terror birds.

The evidence for predation on glyptodonts by humans is very scarce, limited to a Pliocene skull (Glyptotherium) in North America and some latest Pleistocene-early Holocene specimens in South America, with signs of human consumption.[29]
Extinction[edit]

Some evidence suggests that humans drove glyptodonts to extinction.[30] Hunters may have used the shells of dead animals as shelters in inclement weather.[31][32] Evidence from the Campo Laborde and La Moderna archaeological sites in the Argentine Pampas suggests that Glyptodon's relative Doedicurus and another glyptodont survived until the Early Holocene, coexisting with humans for a minimum of 4,000 years.[33] This overlap provides support for models showing the South American Pleistocene extinctions resulted from a combination of climatic change and anthropogenic causes.[33] These sites have been interpreted as ones used for butchering of megafauna (Megatherium and Doedicurus); however, some of the chronology has been problematic and controversial, due to poor preservation of the collagen used for dating.[33]
See also[edit]
Paleontology portal
Prehistoric mammals portal
References[edit]

^ Glyptodon at fossilworks.org (retrieved 2017-01-27)
^ Francisco Cuadrelli; Alfredo E. Zurita; Pablo Toriño; Ángel R. Miño-Boilini; Daniel Perea; Carlos A. Luna; David D. Gillette; Omar Medina (2020). "A new species of glyptodontine (Mammalia, Xenarthra, Glyptodontidae) from the Quaternary of the Eastern Cordillera, Bolivia: phylogeny and palaeobiogeography". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 18 (18): 1543–1566. doi:10.1080/14772019.2020.1784300. S2CID 221064742.
^ Glyptodon petaliferus at fossilworks.org (retrieved 2017-01-27)
^ Glyptodon rivapacis at fossilworks.org (retrieved 2017-01-27)
^ "glyptodon". Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 1933.
^ Fariña, Richard A.; Vizcaíno, Sergio F.; De Iuliis, Gerry (22 May 2013). Megafauna: Giant Beasts of Pleistocene South America. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00719-3. OCLC 779244424.
^ Arbour, V. M.; Currie, P. J. (2015-08-31). "Ankylosaurid dinosaur tail clubs evolved through stepwise acquisition of key features". Journal of Anatomy. 227 (4): 514–523. doi:10.1111/joa.12363. PMC 4580109. PMID 26332595.
^ Delsuc, F.; Gibb, G.C.; Kuch, M.; Billet, G.; Hautier, L.; Southon, J.; Rouillard, J.-M.; Fernicola, J. C.; Vizcaíno, S. F.; MacPhee, R. D.E.; Poinar, H. N. (2016-02-22). "The phylogenetic affinities of the extinct glyptodonts" (PDF). Current Biology. 26 (4): R155–R156. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.039. PMID 26906483.
^ Gibb. G. C.; Condamine, F. L.; Kuch, M.; Enk, J.; Moraes-Barros, N.; Superina, M.; Poinar, H. N.; Delsuc, F. (2016). "Shotgun Mitogenomics Provides a Reference Phylogenetic Framework and Timescale for Living Xenarthrans". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 33 (3): 621–642. doi:10.1093/molbev/msv250. PMC 4760074. PMID 26556496.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Dantas, M. A. T.; França, L. M.; Cozzuol, M. A.; Rincón, A. D. (2013). "About the occurrence of Glyptodon sp. in the Brazilian intertropical region". Quaternary International. 305: 206–208. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.024.
^ Jump up to:a b c Huxley, Thomas H. (1865). On the Osteology of the Genus Glyptodon. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1865: The Royal Society Publishing. pp. 31–70.
^ Zurita, A. E.; Miño-Boilini, Á. R.; Soibelzon, E.; Carlini, A. A.; Ríos, F. P. (2009). "The diversity of Glyptodontidae (Xenarthra, Cingulata) in the Tarija Valley (Bolivia): systematic, biostratigraphic and paleobiogeographic aspects of a particular assemblage". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen. 251 (2): 225–237. doi:10.1127/0077-7749/2009/0251-0225. ISSN 0077-7749.
^ "Glyptodon Owen 1839". Paleobiology Database. Retrieved 2014-09-09.
^ Morgan, G. S. (2008). "Vertebrate Fauna and Geochronology of the Great American Interchange in North America". In Lucas, S. G.; Morgan, G. S.; Spielmann, J. A; et al. (eds.). Neogene Mammals: Bulletin 44. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. pp. 93–140 (see pp. 115–116). GGKEY:UP5Z0XQUK5R.
^ "Bargo M. S. Vizcaíno S. F. — Paleobiology of Pleistocene ground sloths (Xenarthra, Tardigrada) : biomechanics, morphogeometry and ecomorphology applied to the masticatory apparatus. Ameghiniana". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2015-10-30.
^ Fariña, R.A. (2001). "Carved Teeth and Strange Jaws: How Glyptodonts Masticated" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica.
^ Jump up to:a b Gillette, R. (21 December 1981). "Glyptodonts of North America" (PDF). Smithsonian Publications. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
^ Vizcaíno, Sergio F.; Cassini, Guillermo H.; Fernicola, Juan C.; Bargo, M. Susana (2011). "Evaluating Habitats and Feeding Habits Through Ecomorphological Features in Glyptodonts (Mammalia, Xenarthra)". Ameghiniana: 305–319. doi:10.5710/AMGH.v48i3(364). Retrieved 2015-10-29.
^ Adrian Perez-Crespo, Victor (Jan 2012). "Diet and habitat definitions for Mexican glyptodonts from Cedral (San Luis Potosí, México) based on stable isotope analysis". Geological Magazine. 149: 153–157. doi:10.1017/S0016756811000951.
^ Alexander, R. M.; Fariña, R. A.; Vizcaíno, S. F. (May 1999). "Tail blow energy and carapace fractures in a large glyptodont (Mammalia, Xenarthra)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 126 (1): 41–49. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1999.tb00606.x.
^ Flower, W.H. (1871). "Professor Flower's Hunterian Lectures On The Teeth and Allied Organs In The Mammalia". The British Medical Journal.
^ Fernicola, Juan Carlos; Néstor Toledo; M. Susana Bargo; Sergio F. Vizcaíno (October 2012). "A neomorphic ossification of the nasal cartilages and the structure of paranasal sinus system of the glyptodont Neosclerocalyptus Paula Couto 1957 (Mammalia, Xenarthra)". Palaeontologia Electronica. 15 (3): 1–22. doi:10.26879/333.
^ Gillette, David D. (2010). "Glyptodonts in arizona a saga of supercontinents, sea-floor spreading, savannas, and sabertooth cats". Arizona Geological Survey. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
^ Jump up to:a b c Zurita, A. E.; Soibelzon, L. H.; Soibelzon, E.; Gasparini, G. M.; Cenizo, M. M.; Arzani, H. (2010). "Accessory protection structures in Glyptodon Owen (Xenarthra, Cingulata, Glyptodontidae)". Annales de Paléontologie. 96 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2010.01.001. hdl:10915/5356.
^ David Lambert and the Diagram Group. The Field Guide to Prehistoric Life. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1985. pp. 196. ISBN 0-8160-1125-7
^ Jump up to:a b Blanco, R. E.; Jones, W. W.; Rinderknecht, A. (2009-11-22). "The sweet spot of a biological hammer: the centre of percussion of glyptodont (Mammalia: Xenarthra) tail clubs". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 276 (1675): 3971–3978. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.1144. JSTOR 30245090. PMC 2825778. PMID 19710060.
^ Huxley, Thomas Henry (1862-01-01). "Description of a New Specimen of Glyptodon, Recently Acquired by the Royal College of Surgeons of England". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 12: 316–326. doi:10.1098/rspl.1862.0071. JSTOR 112260.
^ Emerling, Christopher A.; Springer, Mark S. (2015-02-07). "Genomic evidence for rod monochromacy in sloths and armadillos suggests early subterranean history for Xenarthra". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 282 (1800): 20142192. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.2192. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 4298209. PMID 25540280.
^ de los Reyes, M.; Poiré, D. G.; Soibelzon, L.; Zurita, A. E.; Arrouy, M. J. (May 2013). "First evidence of scavenging of a Glyptodont (Mammalia, Glyptodontidae) from the Pliocene of the Pampean region (Argentina): taphonomic and paleoecological remarks". Palaeontologia Electronica. 16 (2). Retrieved 2015-11-06.
^ Martin, P. S.; Steadman, D. W. (1999-06-30). "Prehistoric extinctions on islands and continents". In MacPhee, R. D. E (ed.). Extinctions in near time: causes, contexts and consequences. Advances in Vertebrate Paleobiology. 2. New York: Kluwer/Plenum. pp. 17–56, see p. 38. ISBN 978-0-306-46092-0. OCLC 41368299. Retrieved 2015-11-07.
^ Fidalgo, F., et al. (1986) "Investigaciones arqueológicas en el sitio 2 de Arroyo Seco (Pdo. de Tres Arroyos, prov. de Buenos Aires, República Argentina)" In: Bryan, Alan (ed.) (1986) New evidence for the Pleistocene peopling of the Americas Peopling of the Americas Symposia Series, Center for the Study of Early Man, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, ISBN 0-912933-03-8, pp. 221–269, in Spanish
^ Politis, Gustavo G. and Gutierrez, Maria A. (1998) "Gliptodontes y Cazadores-Recolectores de la Region Pampeana (Argentina)" ("Glyptodonts and Hunter-Gatherers in the Pampas Region (Argentina)") Latin American Antiquity 9(2): pp.111–134 in Spanish
^ Jump up to:a b c Politis, G. G.; Messineo, P. G. (November 2008). "The Campo Laborde site: New evidence for the Holocene survival of Pleistocene megafauna in the Argentine Pampas". Quaternary International. 191 (1): 98–114. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.12.003.
External links[edit]
Media related to Glyptodon at Wikimedia Commons

Taxon identifiers

Wikidata: Q131695
EoL: 4471785
Fossilworks: 43576
GBIF: 3239785
iNaturalist: 537561
IRMNG: 1318619
NCBI: 2546652

Categories:
Pleistocene xenarthrans
Prehistoric cingulates
Prehistoric mammal genera
Pleistocene mammals of North America
Pleistocene Guatemala
Fossils of Guatemala
Pleistocene mammals of South America
Pleistocene Argentina
Fossils of Argentina
Pleistocene Brazil
Fossils of Brazil
Pleistocene Paraguay
Fossils of Paraguay
Pleistocene Peru
Fossils of Peru
Pleistocene Uruguay
Fossils of Uruguay
Pleistocene Venezuela
Fossils of Venezuela
Fossil taxa described in 1839
Taxa named by Richard Owen

State-Federal Task Forces and the National Police State

Tenth Amendment Center
Through the proliferation of joint law enforcement task forces, the federal government is creating a national police force that operates in a legal twilight zone with little or no oversight. Path to Liberty: February 22, 2021

What They Found At Nineveh Left Sumerian Scholars Completely Speechless

Matrix Wisdom
When archaeologists discovered a vast repository of Sumerian texts at Nineveh they did not understood the full significance of what they found. But once these texts were translated it soon became obvious that they had just made the discovery of a life time.

5620BC Ancient Sumerian Translations So Wild HISTORY CANT BE UNDERSTOOD ...

Viper TV - Studios
Tablets from some of the world's oldest civilisations hold rich details about life ... That could change thanks to a very modern helper: machine translation. ... But its texts are mainly written in Sumerian and Akkadian, languages that ... had access to the sources, could help us tremendously to understand those ...

Italy: Huge tailbacks as drivers require negative test to cross Austrian...

this is what happens when you play by their rules they want to create mass shortages in supply and demand so they can hike up the prices even further and devalue the currency, #ItsAllFake

Ruptly
 Over 1,000 truck drivers needed to receive a COVID-19 test on Tuesday in Vipiteno, on the Italian border with Austria as new legislation took effect on Sunday. the Italian government established a testing hub managed by the Italian Civil Defence (Protezione Civile) on the A4 highway in the village of Vipiteno. Truck drivers have to stop there to get tested for free. Once they receive a negative result they can continue to the Brennero border. The new legislation means that drivers looking to enter Austria from Italy must receive a negative test to enter the country. The Austrian region of Tirol, close to Vipiteno, has seen a rise in confirmed cases of the mutation originating in South Africa. Travel into Germany from Tirol is also limited to HGV drivers with negative tests taken no longer than 48 hours prior. #Italy​ #Austria​ #COVID19

Egypt ~ The Mystery Of The Seila "Pyramid"

cf-apps7865
A report on what is called the Seila Pyramid, a lonely structure located near the Faiyum region and is pretty unique but is on the Pyramid of Egypt lists. I also go over the Cartouche of Khufu in the Great Pyramid, clearly misspelled. Is this how a mighty king would have wanted his legacy attached to the greatest monument on Earth? Of course not. https://sites.google.com/site/rainpyr...​ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid...​ https://brill.com/cover/covers/978900...​ https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/97...​ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...​ http://www.phouka.com/tr/egypt/photos...​ http://www.unreportedheritagenews.com...​ http://movingmuleteam.blogspot.com/20...​ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi...​ #AncientHistory​ #AncientEgypt​ #pyramidsofEgypt​ #SeilaPyramid​ #Snefru​ #Huni​ #oldkingdom​ #cfapps7865​ #Mystery​ #Mummy​ #GoogleEarth​ #archaeology​ #Egypt​ #FlindersPetrie​ #ancient​ #history​ #pyramid​ #GreatPyramid​ #Hieroglyphs​ #cartouche

India: Students protest Delhi police over arrest of environmental activi...

Ruptly
1.73M subscribers
The All India Students' Association (AISA) staged a protest at the Delhi Police headquarters on Tuesday against the arrest of Bangalore-based environment activist Disha Ravi in the ''toolkit'' case. Ravi was arrested in Bengaluru on Saturday by the Delhi Police for allegedly creating and sharing a protest toolkit backing the farmers' agitation, the same toolkit was shared on Twitter by Greta Thunberg and helped to organise efforts to support the protest movement. Delhi Police argued the toolkit was shared with others to tarnish India's image. Mathuramma, member of the AISA said, "it's an illegal arrest. First, procedures were not followed. Secondly, the arrest is completely illogical, a 21-year-old girl who is an environmental activist is tweeting a supposed toolkit." The protest ended with the submission of a memorandum to the Commissioner of Police raising the demand for the immediate release of Disha Ravi. According to Indian media, the number of farmers protesting the reformed agricultural laws has begun to thin out as they return to their farms, with around half remaining with protests in their 83rd day. #DishaRavi​ #India​ #AISA​ #Delhi​ #FarmersProtests​

The Depopulation Agenda - Bill Gates Plan to Kill You

Truth Matrix

The Depopulation Agenda - Bill Gates Plan to Kill You is a documentary that exposes how the global elites plan for world depopulation of over 90% is nearly at hand.

WSU: Space, Time, and Einstein with Brian Greene

World Science Festival
Join Brian Greene, acclaimed physicist and author, on a wild ride into the mind of Albert Einstein, revealing deep aspects of the world that defy everyday experience. Using a visually rich canvas of animations, Greene leads you through all the startling conclusions of special relativity, from time travel to space warps to E = mc2. In the span of 2+ hours, this short master class will change your conception of reality. This is a mostly non-mathematical version of the WSU Master Class “Special Relativity with Brian Greene.” https://youtu.be/XFV2feKDK9E​ #WorldSciU​ 0:00​ - Start The Special Theory of Relativity - 00:05​ Speed - 00:05:50​ The Speed of Light - 00:18:23​ Relativity of Simultaneity - 00:27:42​ Time in Motion - 00:37:42​ How Fast Does Time Slow? - 00:47:49​ Time Dilation: Experimental Evidence - 01:05:31​ The Reality of Past, Present, and Future - 01:14:37​ Time Dilation: Intuitive Explanation - 01:28:38​ Motion's Effect on Space - 01:32:34​ The Pole in the Barn: Quantitative Details - 01:49:48​ The Twin Paradox - 02:10:39​ Implications for Mass - 02:19:17​ Special Relativity - 02:29:06

Acoustic Energy & Surprising Ways To Harness It (Intro To Thermoacoustics)

NightHawkInLight
Here I introduce a series of experiments culminating in how to make a thermoacoustic engine. Check out my sponsor Brilliant for a great way to keep your mind sharp and learn something new: https://www.brilliant.org/nighthawk​ Below are some sources I found helpful in my research for this video: BladeAtilla was very helpful in troubleshooting issues with the thermoacoustic engine design: https://www.youtube.com/user/bladeattila​ Wiki on thermoacoustics: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoa...​ Wiki on acoustic resonance (great animations for understanding sound waves): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousti...​ Modeling a driven thermoacoustic oscillator: https://sites.google.com/a/umn.edu/mx...​ Various experiments with a standing wave engine: https://labs.wsu.edu/matveev/acoustics/​ In depth study on a thermoacoustic refrigerator: https://www.researchgate.net/publicat...

CONSPIRITUS: THE ILLUMINATI CONSPIRACY (REMAKE BY XENDRIUS)(MOBILE VIEWING)

KAKAROTT SAINI

This is by far the scariest UFO and Illuminati related documentary i have ever seen. Made by Xendrius this documentary truly scares the **** out of you. UFO's, Illuminati, Free-masons, Bohemian Grove, Skull and Bones, Demons, Satanists you name it and this documentary has it all. Again this movie stretched bounds of my imagination and eventually crossed them but many facts in this movie did intrigue me. But most of all it scared the wind out of me. If you are a (what if?) kind of person, trust me this documentary is for you. This documentary revolves around the Demonic Alien Agenda and its connection to Illuminati & other secret societies. Watch it to see a new perspective about UFO's and their agenda for being here? Watch it to learn the inner workings of dark secret societies? Watch it to see where religion fits in all this? Watch it to change your ideology about life? I thought in the beginning that this whole Alien-Demonic connection was a far fetched idea which i was truly finding difficult to grasp. But as you keep on watching the film you come across some very plausible theories. But i didn't agree to the main one that ufo's are demons. Yeah they could be entities from other dimension but saying they are the biblical demons is a little too much for me. When will humanity learn that nobody else is coming to rescue it from impending destruction. No messiah, no benevolent aliens and not god. Its we humans who have to attain a higher level of existence because no problem can be solved at the same level of consciousness on which it was created. you have attain higher consciousness to rid humanity of all its problems. and if nothing else, like me......Watch it to get shocked, horrified and scared

The Hidden

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on blogger

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CREEPY VIDEO!! February 9, 2021 | Hailstorm, Rain, Snow, and Floods | Sa...

Our World Today
A severe Flooding caused by Hailstorm and Snow, destroyed poeple's properties in saudi, arabia on february 9, 2021 A strong hailstorm hit Abha in Asir Province, Saudi Arabia, on Tuesday, February 9, 2021, turning the desert into icy roads. The hailstorm struck the city on Tuesday afternoon, accompanied by cold winds and thunderstorms. Photos and videos on social media show roads covered in hail and the desert blanketed in ice. SUPPORT ME HERE- PATREON - https://www.patreon.com/OurWorldToday​ This Channel Contents such natural disasters as: 1) Geological emergencies: Earthquake, Volcanic eruption, Mud, Landslide, Landslide, Avalanche; 2) Hydrological emergencies: Flood, Tsunami, Limnological disaster, Flood, Flood; 3) Fires: Forest fire, Peat fire; 4) Meteorological emergencies: Tornado, Cyclone, Blizzard, Hail, Drought, Tornado, Hail, Hurricane, Tsunami, Storm, Thunderstorm, Tempest. 5) Strange, Mystery, Scary, unknown, creepy, caught on tape, bizarre, mysterious, phenomenon, phenomena Thank You for watching. If you like the video please leave a like and subscribe for more. LATEST VIDEOS: ×Angels Caught on Tape Inside China Blowing Trumpet - March 2020 https://youtu.be/B6R84jv7HTM​ ×CRAZY VIDEO! Hurricane ETA Great winds and Floods - November 4, 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iHsgD...​ ×SCARY FOOTAGE! Terrorist Attack in Vienna, Austria - November 3, 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xF6pX...​ x10 Apocalyptic Strange Noises/Sky Trumpet Heard ALL AROUND THE WORLD DURING LOCKDOWN 2020 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=otob_...​ (TAGS) Earthquake caught on tape UFO caught on tape Strange Happenings Earthquake Live Earthquake today flood flash floods live natural disaster today mother nature is angry Mother Nature caught on tape latest happenings strange events
#strange​ #creepy​ #scaryvideo​ #hailstorm

3200 Year Old Egyptian Stela Explains EVERYTHING About the Nubian Pharoa...

Matrix Wisdom
Overshadowed by Egypt for centuries, the Kingdom of Kush was a place of uncharted breadth and depth far up the Nile, a place of mystery almost verging on myth. Until an artifact more than 3000 years old was discovered in Jebel Barkal. It is known as the Victory stele.

Operation Wake UP!!!!!

#Support4ShowMeBby

TheShowmebby

Greece: Explosions, clashes and arrests at protest over education bill i...

Ruptly
Clashes between riot police and protesters broke out during a demonstration over an education bill outside the Greek Parliament in Athens, on Wednesday. Protesters were seen throwing firebombs at police, who used tear gas to disperse the crowds, as well as arresting some of the demonstrators. "While there are not enough funds and proper infrastructure at universities, the government chooses to spend money on police and disciplining students. Students say there is no way this law will be applied," said Vaggelis, a student. The bill, which has been proposed by the ruling and conservative-leaning New Democracy party, would lift a decades-old ban on police entering university grounds, enacted in the aftermath of the fall of the military dictatorship. Officials argue the ban had been exploited to organise violent protests and criminal activity. As part of the bill, students could also be held accountable for putting up banners and poster across campus. Protests have been ongoing in recent weeks, with many students believing freedom of expression could be at stake at universities. The bill would also place a time limit on how long students have to complete their degrees. (Boooooooo fuck the new world order)

LIVE: Trump impeachment trial continues in Washington DC

Ruptly
The second impeachment trial of former US President Donald Trump continues in Washington DC on Wednesday, February 10. ​​ The House managers are scheduled to begin their opening arguments, followed by the former president’s defence team. Each side will have 16 hours to make their presentations — a shorter period than the 24 hours during Trump's first trial. The decision means that each day of the process is likely to last eight hours. When the opening arguments are voiced, senators will be able to question the two sides for four hours by submitting written questions to Patrick Leahy, presiding over the trial. On January 26, the managers formally delivered the single article of impeachment with the charge of "incitement of insurrection" to the Senate. Traditionally, the trial would commence on the following day, but Senate leaders agreed on postponing the date to give Trump's legal team more time to prepare and Senate Democrats a chance to confirm President Joe Biden's Cabinet nominations."  aka  the PPPP presidential paedophile perks plan

Do Not Dare Call Them ''ALIENS'' (2020)

Thescariestmovieever

Mandela Effect A.P. Tutorial For CERN: How To Build The OmniCollider &...

SHARE H!S V!S!0N
Soon there will be nothing left.

Acoustic Energy & Surprising Ways To Harness It (Intro To Thermoacoustics)

NightHawkInLight
Here I introduce a series of experiments culminating in how to make a thermoacoustic engine. Check out my sponsor Brilliant for a great way to keep your mind sharp and learn something new: https://www.brilliant.org/nighthawk​ Below are some sources I found helpful in my research for this video: BladeAtilla was very helpful in troubleshooting issues with the thermoacoustic engine design: https://www.youtube.com/user/bladeattila​ Wiki on thermoacoustics: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoa...​ Wiki on acoustic resonance (great animations for understanding sound waves): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousti...​ Modeling a driven thermoacoustic oscillator: https://sites.google.com/a/umn.edu/mx...​ Various experiments with a standing wave engine: https://labs.wsu.edu/matveev/acoustics/​ In depth study on a thermoacoustic refrigerator: https://www.researchgate.net/publicat...​ A special thanks to my top Patrons: LVE, Enzo Breda Lee, Jon Hartmann, TheBackyardScientist & Eugene Pakhomov! If you enjoy these videos please consider supporting my efforts to continually improve them: https://www.patreon.com/NightHawkProj...​ Thanks for watching! -Ben