Teleportation Physics Study 2
Teleportation Physics Study
Eric W. Davis
Warp Drive Metrics
4849 San Rafael Ave.
Las Vegas, NV 89120
August 2004
Special Report
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30 Jan 2001 – 28 Jul 2003
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Teleportation Physics Study 5b. GRANT NUMBER
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62500F
6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER
4847
Eric W. Davis 5e. TASK NUMBER
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Air Force Research Laboratory (AFMC)
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14. ABSTRACT
This study was tasked with the purpose of collecting information describing the teleportation of material objects, providing a description of
teleportation as it occurs in physics, its theoretical and experimental status, and a projection of potential applications. The study also consisted
of a search for teleportation phenomena occurring naturally or under laboratory conditions that can be assembled into a model describing the
conditions required to accomplish the transfer of objects. This included a review and documentation of quantum teleportation, its theoretical
basis, technological development, and its potential applications. The characteristics of teleportation were defined and physical theories were
evaluated in terms of their ability to completely describe the phenomena. Contemporary physics, as well as theories that presently challenge the
current physics paradigm were investigated. The author identified and proposed two unique physics models for teleportation that are based on
the manipulation of either the general relativistic spacetime metric or the spacetime vacuum electromagnetic (zero-point fluctuations)
parameters. Naturally occurring anomalous teleportation phenomena that were previously studied by the United States and foreign
governments were also documented in the study and are reviewed in the report. The author proposes an additional model for teleportation that
is based on a combination of the experimental results from the previous government studies and advanced physics concepts. Numerous
recommendations outlining proposals for further theoretical and experimental studies are given in the report. The report also includes an
extensive teleportation bibliography.
15. SUBJECT TERMS
teleportation; physics, quantum teleportation; teleportation phenomena; anomalous teleportation; teleportation theories;
teleportation experiments; teleportation bibliography
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FOREWORD
This Special Technical Report presents the results of a subcontracted study performed by Warp Drive
Metrics, Las Vegas, NV, under Contract No. F04611-99-C-0025, for the Air Force Research Laboratory
(AFRL)/Space and Missile Propulsion Division, Propellant Branch (PRSP), Edwards AFB, CA. The Project
Manager for AFRL/PRSP was Dr. Franklin B. Mead, Jr.
This report has been reviewed and is approved for release and distribution in accordance with the
distribution statement on the cover and on the SF Form 298. This report is published in the interest of scientific and
technical information exchange and does not constitute approval or disapproval of its ideas or findings.
//Signed// //Signed//
_______________________________________ ______________________________________
FRANKLIN B. MEAD, JR. RONALD E. CHANNELL
Project Manager Chief, Propellants Branch
//Signed// //Signed// AFRL-ERS-PAS-04-155
PHILIP A. KESSEL
Technical Advisor, Space and Missile
Propulsion Division
RANNEY G. ADAMS III
Public Affairs Director
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iii
Table of Contents
Section Page
1.0 INTRODUCTION….……………………………………………………………………………...….1
1.1 Introduction…..……………………………………………………………………………….…...1
1.2 The Definitions of Teleportation…...………………………………………………………...…....1
2.0 vm -TELEPORTATION……................………………………………….…………………………...3
2.1 Engineering the Spacetime Metric……..………………………………………………………......3
2.1.1 Wormhole Thin Shell Formalism…………………………………………………...……….3
2.1.2 “Exotic” Matter-Energy Requirements….…………………………………………..…...…11
2.2 Engineering the Vacuum……………………………………………………………………….....11
2.2.1 The Polarizable-Vacuum Representation of General Relativity………………………...…20
2.3 Conclusion and Recommendations…………………………………………………………….…26
3.0 q-TELEPORTATION…..………..……………………..……………………………………………30
3.1 Teleportation Scenario………………………………………………….………………….……..30
3.2 Quantum Teleportation……………………………………………………………………...……32
3.2.1 Description of the q-Teleportation Process………………………………………………...34
3.2.2 Decoherence Fundamentally Limits q-Teleportation………………………………………38
3.2.3 Recent Developments in Entanglement and q-Teleportation Physics….…………………..38
3.3 Conclusion and Recommendations……………………..……………………………….………..46
4.0 e-TELEPORTATION…...……...……..……………………………………………………………...50
4.1 Extra Space Dimensions and Parallel Universes/Spaces….……………………………………...50
4.2 Vacuum Hole Teleportation………………………………………………………………………52
4.3 Conclusion and Recommendations…………………………………………………………..…...53
5.0 p-TELEPORTATION…...…………...….……………………………………………………………55
5.1 PK Phenomenon..……………………………………….….……………………………………..55
5.1.1 Hypothesis Based on Mathematical Geometry……………………………………….….....60
5.2 Conclusion and Recommendations........................................................................……………….61
6.0 REFERENCES…..……..……………………………………………………….…...…………….…63
APPENDIX A – A Few Words About Negative Energy…………..………………….……………...…..73
A.1 A General Relativistic Definition of Negative or Exotic Energy………………………………..73
A.2 Squeezed Quantum States and Negative Energy……………….………………………….…….73
APPENDIX B – THεµ Methodology…….…..……….………………………….………………..……...75
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List of Figures
Figure Page
Figure 1. Diagram of a Simultaneous View of Two Remote Compact Regions (Ω1 and Ω2) of
Minkowski Space Used to Create the Wormhole Throat ∂Ω, Where Time is Suppressed
in This Representation……………..……………………….……………………………………5
Figure 2. The Same Diagram as in Figure 1 Except as Viewed by an Observer Sitting in Region
Ω1 Who Looks Through the Wormhole Throat ∂Ω and Sees Remote Region Ω2 (Dotted
Area Inside the Circle) on the Other Side………………………………………………………. 6
Figure 3. A Thin Shell of (Localized) Matter-Energy, or Rather the Two-Dimensional Spacelike
Hypersurface ∂Ω (via (2.3)), Possessing the Two Principal Radii of Curvature ρ1 and ρ2….…..8
Figure 4. A Schematic of Vacuum Quantum Field Fluctuations (a.k.a. Vacuum Zero Point Field
Fluctuations) Involved in the “Light-by-Light” Scattering Process That Affects the Speed
of Light…………………………………………………………………………………………13
Figure 5. A Schematic of the Casimir Effect Cavity/Waveguide………………………………………...15
Figure 6. Classical Facsimile Transmission (Modified IBM Press Image)………………………………35
Figure 7. Quantum Teleportation (Modified IBM Press Image)…………………………………………36
Figure 8. Quantum Teleportation (From www.aip.org)..............................................................................43
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List of Tables
Table Page
Table 1. Metric Effects in the PV-GR Model When K > 1 (Compared With Reference Frames at
Asymptotic Infinity Where K = 1)…………………………………………………………...…21
Table 2. Metric Effects in the PV-GR Model When K < 1 (Compared With Reference Frames at
Asymptotic Infinity Where K = 1)……………………………………………………………...22
Table 3. Substantial Gravitational Squeezing Occurs When λ ≥ 8πrs (For Electromagnetic ZPF)............28
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Glossary
AEC Average Energy Condition
AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory
AU Astronomical Unit
BBO Beta (β)-Barium Borate
CGS Centimeter-Gram-Second
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DEC Dominant Energy Condition
DIA Defense Intelligence Agency
DNA Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid
DoD Department of Defense
EPR Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen
ESP Extrasensory Perception
eV Electron Volt
FRW Friedmann-Robertson-Walker
FTL Faster-Than-Light
IBM International Business Machines
INSCOM Intelligence and Security Command
IR Infrared
MeV Mega-Electron Volt
MKS Meter-Kilogram-Second
NEC Null Energy Condition
NLP Neuro-Linguistic Programming
NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NSA National Security Agency
PK Psychokinesis
PPN Parameterized Post-Newtonian
PRC Peoples Republic of China
PV-GR Polarizable-Vacuum Representation of General Relativity
QED Quantum Electrodynamics
QISP Quantum Information Science Program
R&D Research and Development
SAIC Science Applications International Corporation
SEC Strong Energy Condition
SRI Stanford Research Institute
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
UV Ultraviolet
WEC Weak Energy Condition
ZPE Zero-Point Energy
ZPF Zero-Point Fluctuations
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vii
Acknowledgements
This study would not have been possible without the very generous support of Dr. Frank Mead,
Senior Scientist at the Advanced Concepts Office of the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)
Propulsion Directorate at Edwards AFB, CA. Dr. Mead’s collegial collaboration, ready assistance, and
constant encouragement were invaluable to me. Dr. Mead’s professionalism and excellent rapport with
“out-of-the-box” thinkers excites and motivates serious exploration into advanced concepts that push the
envelope of knowledge and discovery. The author owes a very large debt of gratitude and appreciation to
both Dr. David Campbell, Program Manager, ERC, Inc. at AFRL, Edwards AFB, CA, and the ERC, Inc.
staff, for supporting the project contract and for making all the paperwork fuss totally painless. Dr.
Campbell and his staff provided timely assistance when the author needed it, which helped make this
contract project run smoothly.
There are two colleagues who provided important contributions to this study that I wish to
acknowledge. First, I would like to express my sincere thanks and deepest appreciation to my first
longtime mentor and role model, the late Dr. Robert L. Forward. Bob Forward was the first to influence
my interests in interstellar flight and advanced breakthrough physics concepts (i.e., “Future Magic”) when
I first met him at an AIAA Joint Propulsion Conference in Las Vegas while I was in high school (ca.
1978). The direction I took in life from that point forward followed the trail of exploration and discovery
that was blazed by Bob. I will miss him, but I will never forget him. Second, I would like to express my
sincere thanks and appreciation to my longtime friend, colleague and present mentor, Dr. Hal Puthoff,
Institute for Advanced Studies-Austin, for our many discussions on applying his Polarizable VacuumGeneral
Relativity model to a quasi-classical teleportation concept. Hal taught me to expand my mind,
and he encourages me to think outside the box. He also gave me a great deal of valuable insight and
personal knowledge about the Remote Viewing Program. Last, I would like to offer my debt of gratitude
and thanks to my business manager (and spouse), Lindsay K. Davis, for all the hard work she does to
make the business end of Warp Drive Metrics run smoothly.
Eric W. Davis, Ph.D., FBIS
Warp Drive Metrics
Las Vegas, NV
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viii
Preface
The Teleportation Physics Study is divided into four phases. Phase I is a review and documentation
of quantum teleportation, its theoretical basis, technological development, and its potential application.
Phase II developed a textbook description of teleportation as it occurs in classical physics, explored its
theoretical and experimental status, and projected its potential applications. Phase III consisted of a
search for teleportation phenomena occurring naturally or under laboratory conditions that can be
assembled into a model describing the conditions required to accomplish the disembodied conveyance of
objects. The characteristics of teleportation were defined, and physical theories were evaluated in terms
of their ability to completely describe the phenomenon. Presently accepted physics theories, as well as
theories that challenge the current physics paradigm were investigated for completeness. The theories
that provide the best chance of explaining teleportation were selected, and experiments with a high chance
of accomplishing teleportation were identified. Phase IV is the final report.
The report contains five chapters. Chapter 1 is an overview of the textbook descriptions for the
various teleportation phenomena that are found in nature, in theoretical physics concepts, and in
experimental laboratory work. Chapter 2 proposes two quasi-classical physics concepts for teleportation:
the first is based on engineering the spacetime metric to induce a traversable wormhole; the second is
based on the polarizable-vacuum-general relativity approach that treats spacetime metric changes in terms
of equivalent changes in the vacuum permittivity and permeability constants. These concepts are
theoretically developed and presented. Promising laboratory experiments were identified and
recommended for further research. Chapter 3 presents the current state-of-art of quantum teleportation
physics, its theoretical basis, technological development, and its applications. Key theoretical,
experimental, and applications breakthroughs were identified, and a series of theoretical and experimental
research programs are proposed to solve technical problems and advance quantum teleportation physics.
Chapter 4 gives an overview of alternative teleportation concepts that challenge the present physics
paradigm. These concepts are based on the existence of parallel universes/spaces and/or extra space
dimensions. The theoretical and experimental work that has been done to develop these concepts is
reviewed, and a recommendation for further research is made. Last, Chapter 5 gives an in-depth
overview of unusual teleportation phenomena that occur naturally and under laboratory conditions. The
teleportation phenomenon discussed in the chapter is based on psychokinesis (PK), which is a category of
psychotronics. The U.S. military-intelligence literature is reviewed, which relates the historical scientific
research performed on PK-teleportation in the U.S., China and the former Soviet Union. The material
discussed in the chapter largely challenges the current physics paradigm; however, extensive controlled
and repeatable laboratory data exists to suggest that PK-teleportation is quite real and that it is
controllable. The report ends with a combined list of references.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The concept of teleportation was originally developed during the Golden Age of 20th century science
fiction literature by writers in need of a form of instantaneous disembodied transportation technology to
support the plots of their stories. Teleportation has appeared in such SciFi literature classics as Algis
Budry’s Rogue Moon (Gold Medal Books, 1960), A. E. van Vogt’s World of Null-A (Astounding Science
Fiction, August 1945), and George Langelaan’s The Fly (Playboy Magazine, June 1957). The Playboy
Magazine short story led to a cottage industry of popular films decrying the horrors of scientific
technology that exceeded mankind’s wisdom: The Fly (1958), Return of the Fly (1959), Curse of the Fly
(1965), The Fly (a 1986 remake), and The Fly II (1989). The teleportation concept has also appeared in
episodes of popular television SciFi anthology series such as The Twilight Zone and The Outer Limits.
But the most widely recognized pop-culture awareness of the teleportation concept began with the
numerous Star Trek television and theatrical movie series of the past 39 years (beginning in 1964 with the
first TV series pilot episode, The Cage), which are now an international entertainment and product
franchise that was originally spawned by the late genius television writer-producer Gene Roddenberry.
Because of Star Trek everyone in the world is familiar with the “transporter” device, which is used to
teleport personnel and material from starship to starship or from ship to planet and vice versa at the speed
of light. People or inanimate objects would be positioned on the transporter pad and become completely
disintegrated by a beam with their atoms being patterned in a computer buffer and later converted into a
beam that is directed toward the destination, and then reintegrated back into their original form (all
without error!). “Beam me up, Scotty” is a familiar automobile bumper sticker or cry of exasperation that
were popularly adopted from the series.
However, the late Dr. Robert L. Forward (2001) stated that modern hard-core SciFi literature, with
the exception of the ongoing Star Trek franchise, has abandoned using the teleportation concept because
writers believe that it has more to do with the realms of parapsychology/paranormal (a.k.a. psychic) and
imaginative fantasy than with any realm of science. Beginning in the 1980s developments in quantum
theory and general relativity physics have succeeded in pushing the envelope in exploring the reality of
teleportation. A crescendo of scientific and popular literature appearing in the 1990s and as recently as
2003 has raised public awareness of the new technological possibilities offered by teleportation. As for
the psychic aspect of teleportation, it became known to Dr. Forward and myself, along with several
colleagues both inside and outside of government, that anomalous teleportation has been scientifically
investigated and separately documented by the Department of Defense.
It has been recognized that extending the present research in quantum teleportation and developing
alternative forms of teleportation physics would have a high payoff impact on communications and
transportation technologies in the civilian and military sectors. It is the purpose of this study to explore
the physics of teleportation and delineate its characteristics and performances, and to make
recommendations for further studies in support of Air Force Advanced Concepts programs.
1.2 The Definitions of Teleportation
Before proceeding, it is necessary to give a definition for each of the teleportation concepts I have
identified during the course of this study:
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¾ Teleportation – SciFi: the disembodied transport of persons or inanimate objects across space by
advanced (futuristic) technological means (adapted from Vaidman, 2001). We will call this sfTeleportation,
which will not be considered further in this study.
¾ Teleportation – psychic: the conveyance of persons or inanimate objects by psychic means. We
will call this p-Teleportation.
¾ Teleportation – engineering the vacuum or spacetime metric: the conveyance of persons or
inanimate objects across space by altering the properties of the spacetime vacuum, or by altering
the spacetime metric (geometry). We will call this vm-Teleportation.
¾ Teleportation – quantum entanglement: the disembodied transport of the quantum state of a
system and its correlations across space to another system, where system refers to any single or
collective particles of matter or energy such as baryons (protons, neutrons, etc.), leptons
(electrons, etc.), photons, atoms, ions, etc. We will call this q-Teleportation.
¾ Teleportation – exotic: the conveyance of persons or inanimate objects by transport through extra
space dimensions or parallel universes. We will call this e-Teleportation.
We will examine each of these in detail in the following chapters and determine whether any of the above
teleportation concepts encompass the instantaneous and or disembodied conveyance of objects through
space.
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2.0 vm-TELEPORTATION
2.1 Engineering the Spacetime Metric
A comprehensive literature search for vm-Teleportation within the genre of spacetime metric
engineering yielded no results. No one in the general relativity community has thought to apply the
Einstein field equation to determine whether there are solutions compatible with the concept of
teleportation. Therefore, I will offer two solutions that I believe will satisfy the definition of vmTeleportation.
The first solution can be found from the class of traversable wormholes giving rise to what
I call a true “stargate.” A stargate is essentially a wormhole with a flat-face shape for the throat as
opposed to the spherical-shaped throat of the Morris and Thorne (1988) traversable wormhole, which was
derived from a spherically symmetric Lorentzian spacetime metric that prescribes the wormhole geometry
(see also, Visser, 1995 for a complete review of traversable Lorentzian wormholes):
2 2() 2 2 1 2 2 2 [1 ( ) ] r ds e c dt b r r dr r d φ − =− + − + Ω (2.1),
where by inspection we can write the traversable wormhole metric tensor in the form
2()
1
2
2 2
0 00
0 [1 ( ) ] 0 0
00 0
0 0 0 sin
r e
br r
g
r
r
φ
αβ
θ
−
−
− =
(2.2)
using standard spherical coordinates, where c is the speed of light, α,β ≡ (0 = t, 1 = r, 2 = θ, 3 = ϕ) are the
time and space coordinate indices (-∞ < t < ∞; r: 2πr = circumference; 0 ≤ θ ≤ π; 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π), dΩ2
= dθ2
+
sin2
θdϕ2
, φ(r) is the freely specifiable redshift function that defines the proper time lapse through the
wormhole throat, and b(r) is the freely specifiable shape function that defines the wormhole throat’s
spatial (hypersurface) geometry. Such spacetimes are asymptotically flat. The Einstein field equation
requires that a localized source of matter-energy be specified in order to determine the geometry that the
source induces on the local spacetime. We can also work the Einstein equation backwards by specifying
the local geometry in advance and then calculate the matter-energy source required to induce the desired
geometry. The Einstein field equation thus relates the spacetime geometry terms comprised of the
components of the metric tensor and their derivatives (a.k.a. the Einstein tensor) to the local matterenergy
source terms comprised of the energy and stress-tension densities (a.k.a. the stress-energy tensor).
The flat-face wormhole or stargate is derived in the following section.
2.1.1 Wormhole Thin Shell Formalism
The flat-face traversable wormhole solution is derived from the thin shell (a.k.a. junction condition or
surface layer) formalism of the Einstein equations (Visser, 1989; see also, Misner, Thorne and Wheeler,
1973). We adapt Visser’s (1989) development in the following discussion. The procedure is to take two
copies of flat Minkowski space and remove from each identical regions of the form Ω × ℜ, where Ω is a
three-dimensional compact spacelike hypersurface and ℜ is a timelike straight line (time axis). Then
identify these two incomplete spacetimes along the timelike boundaries ∂Ω × ℜ. The resulting spacetime
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is geodesically complete and possesses two asymptotically flat regions connected by a wormhole. The
throat of the wormhole is just the junction ∂Ω (a two-dimensional space-like hypersurface) at which the
two original Minkowski spaces are identified (see Figures 1 and 2).
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Figure 1. Diagram of a Simultaneous View of Two Remote Compact Regions
(Ω1 and Ω2) of Minkowski Space Used to Create the Wormhole Throat ∂Ω,
Where Time is Suppressed in This Representation (adapted from Bennett et al., 1995)
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Figure 2. The Same Diagram as in Figure 1 Except as Viewed by an Observer
Sitting in Region Ω1 Who Looks Through the Wormhole Throat ∂Ω and
Sees Remote Region Ω2 (Dotted Area Inside the Circle) on the Other Side
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The resulting spacetime is everywhere Riemann-flat except possibly at the throat. Also, the stressenergy
tensor in this spacetime is concentrated at the throat with a δ-function singularity there. This is a
consequence of the fact that the spacetime metric at the throat is continuous but not differentiable, while
the connection is discontinuous; thus causing the Riemann curvature to possess a δ-function singularity
(causing undesirable gravitational tidal forces) there. The magnitude of this δ-function singularity can be
calculated in terms of the second fundamental form on both sides of the throat, which we presume to be
generated by a localized thin shell of matter-energy. The second fundamental form represents the
extrinsic curvature of the ∂Ω hypersurface (i.e., the wormhole throat), telling how it is curved with respect
to the enveloping four-dimensional spacetime. The form of the geometry is simple, so the second
fundamental form at the throat is calculated to be (McConnell, 1957):
0
1
2
1
2
0 0
0 0
0 0
00 0
01 0
001
i K j
κ
κ
κ
ρ
ρ
±
= ±
= ±
(2.3),
where i,j = 0,1,2 and Ki
j
±
is the second fundamental form. The full 4×4 matrix Kα
β has been reduced to
3×3 form, as above, for computational convenience because the thin shell (or hypersurface) is essentially
a two-surface embedded in three-space. The overall ± sign in equation (2.3) comes from the fact that a
unit normal points outward from one side of the surface and points inward on the other side. We hereafter
drop the ± sign for the sake of brevity in notation. The quantities κ0, κ1, and κ2 measure the extrinsic
curvature of the thin shell of local matter-energy (i.e., the stuff that induces the wormhole throat
geometry). Since the wormhole throat is a space-like hypersurface, we can exclude time-like
hypersurfaces and their components in the calculations. Therefore we set κ0 = 0 in equation (2.3) because
it is the time-like extrinsic curvature for the time-like hypersurface of the thin shell of matter-energy. As
seen in equation (2.3) κ1 and κ2 are simply related to the two principal radii of curvature ρ1 and ρ2
(defined to be the eigenvalues of Ki
j) of the two-dimensional spacelike hypersurface ∂Ω (see Figure 3). It
should be noted that a convex surface has positive radii of curvature, while a concave surface has negative
radii of curvature.
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Figure 3. A Thin Shell of (Localized) Matter-Energy, or Rather the Two-Dimensional
Spacelike Hypersurface ∂Ω (via (2.3)), Possessing the Two Principal Radii of Curvature ρ1 and ρ2
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It is a standard result of the thin shell or junction condition formalism that the Einstein field equation
may be cast in terms of the surface stress-energy tensor Si
j of the thin matter-energy shell localized in ∂Ω
(note: we are exploiting the symmetry of the wormhole with respect to interchange of the two flat regions
Ω1 and Ω2):
( )
4
4
i i ik
j j jk
c S KK
G
δ
π =− − (2.4),
where G is Newton’s gravitational constant and δi
j is the (three-dimensional) unit matrix. Kk
k is the trace
of equation (2.3):
1 2
1 1
k i K Tr K k j
ρ ρ
=
= +
(2.5)
and
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
i k
j k K
ρ ρ
δ
ρ ρ
ρ ρ
+
= +
+
(2.6).
Substituting (2.3) and (2.6) into (2.4) gives (after simplification):
1 2 4
2
1
1 1 0 0
01 0
4
0 01
i
j
c S
G
ρ ρ
ρ
π
ρ
+
=
(2.7).
The thin matter-energy shell’s surface stress-energy tensor may be interpreted in terms of the surface
energy density σ and principal surface tensions ϑ1 and ϑ2:
1
2
0 0
0 0
0 0
i
j S
σ
ϑ
ϑ
−
= −
−
(2.8).
Thus we arrive at the Einstein field equation by equating (2.8) and (2.7) and multiplying both sides by –1:
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1 2 4
1 2
2 1
1 1 0 0
0 0
0 0 01 0
4
00 0 0 1
c
G
σ ρ ρ
ϑ ρ
π
ϑ ρ
+ = −
(2.9),
which gives the final result
4
1 2
1 1
4
c
G
σ
π ρ ρ
=− +
(2.10a)
4
1
2
1
4
c
G
ϑ
π ρ = − (2.10b)
4
2
1
1
4
c
G
ϑ
π ρ = − (2.10c).
These are the Einstein equations. Equations (2.10a-c) imply that (for ∂Ω convex) we are dealing with
negative surface energy density and negative surface tensions. This result is in fact the primary matterenergy
requirement for traversable wormholes, as was proved by Morris and Thorne (1988), and later by
Visser (1995), within the paradigm of classical Einstein general relativity. The negative surface tension
(= positive outward pressure, a.k.a. gravitational repulsion or antigravity) is needed to keep the throat
open and stable against collapse. The reader should not be alarmed at this result. Negative energies and
negative stress-tensions are an acceptable result both mathematically and physically, and they manifest
gravitational repulsion (antigravity!) in and around the wormhole throat. One only needs to understand
what it means for stress-energy to be negative within the proper context. In general relativity the term
“exotic” is used in place of “negative.” The effects of negative energy have been produced in the
laboratory (the Casimir Effect is one example). In short, negative energy arises from Heisenberg’s
quantum uncertainty principle, which requires that the energy density of any electromagnetic, magnetic,
electric or other fields must fluctuate randomly. Even in a vacuum, where the average energy density is
zero, the energy density fluctuates. This means that the quantum vacuum can never remain truly empty in
the classical sense of the term. The quantum picture of the vacuum is that of a turbulent plenum of virtual
(i.e., energy non-conserving) particle pairs that spontaneously pop in and out of existence. The notion of
“zero energy” in quantum theory corresponds to the vacuum being filled with such fluctuations going on.
This issue is further elaborated on and clarified in greater detail in Appendix A. We will also revisit this
in Section 2.2. Finally, it should be noted that for the analysis in this section we assumed an ultrastatic
wormhole [i.e., g00 ≡ 1 ⇒ φ(r) = 0 in equation (2.1)] with the “exotic” matter-energy confined to a thin
layer, and we dispensed with the assumption of spherical symmetry.
We can now build a wormhole-stargate and affect vm-Teleportation such that a traveler stepping into
the throat encounters no exotic matter-energy there. This will require that our wormhole be flat shaped.
To make the wormhole flat requires that we choose the throat ∂Ω to have at least one flat face (picture the
thin shell in Figure 3 becoming a flat shell). On that face the two principal radii of curvature become ρ1 =
ρ2 = ∞ as required by standard geometry. Substituting this into equations (2.10a-c) gives
1 2 σϑ ϑ === 0 (2.11),
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which is a remarkable result. A further consequence of this is that now Ki
j = 0, thus making the Riemann
curvature and stress-energy tensors (Riemann: Rα
β ~ Kα
β; stress-energy: Tα
β ~ Kα
β) at the throat become
zero such that the associated δ-function singularities disappear there. This means that a traveler
encountering and going through such a wormhole will feel no tidal gravitational forces and see no exotic
matter-energy (that threads the throat). A traveler stepping through the throat will simply be teleported
into the other remote spacetime region or another universe (note: the Einstein equation does not fix the
spacetime topology, so it is possible that wormholes are inter-universe as well as intra-universe tunnels).
We construct such a teleportation stargate by generating a thin shell or surface layer of “exotic” matterenergy
much like a thin film of soap stretched across a loop of wire.
2.1.2 “Exotic” Matter-Energy Requirements
Now we have to estimate the amount of negative (or exotic) mass-energy that will be needed to
generate and hold open a vm-Teleportation wormhole. A simple formula originally due to Visser (1995)
for short-throat wormholes using the thin shell formalism gives:
2
27 (1.3469 10 )1
(0.709 )1
throat
wh
throat
throat
Jupiter
r c M
G
r x kg
meter
r M
meter
= −
= −
= −
(2.12),
where Mwh is the mass required to build the wormhole, rthroat is a suitable measure of the linear dimension
(radius) of the throat, and MJupiter is the mass of the planet Jupiter (1.90×1027 kg). Equation (2.12)
demonstrates that a mass of –0.709 MJupiter (or –1.3469×1027 kg) will be required to build a wormhole 1
meter in size. As the wormhole size increases the mass requirement grows negative-large, and vice versa
as the wormhole size decreases. After being alarmed by the magnitude of this, one should note that Mwh
is not the total mass of the wormhole as seen by observers at remote distances. The non-linearity of the
Einstein field equations dictates that the total mass is zero (actually, the total net mass being positive,
negative or zero in the Newtonian approximation depending on the details of the negative energy
configuration constituting the wormhole system). And finally, Visser et al. (2003) have demonstrated the
existence of spacetime geometries containing traversable wormholes that are supported by arbitrarily
small quantities of exotic matter-energy, and they proved that this was a general result. In Section 2.3 we
will discuss how or whether we can create such a wormhole in the laboratory.
2.2 Engineering the Vacuum
Engineering the spacetime vacuum provides a second solution that also satisfies the definition of vmTeleportation.
The concept of “engineering the vacuum” was first introduced to the physics community
by Lee (1988). Lee stated:
“The experimental method to alter the properties of the vacuum may be called vacuum engineering…If
indeed we are able to alter the vacuum, then we may encounter some new phenomena, totally
unexpected.”
This new concept is based on the now-accepted fact that the vacuum is characterized by physical
parameters and structure that constitutes an energetic medium which pervades the entire extent of the
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universe. We note here the two most important defining properties of the vacuum in this regard (Puthoff
et al., 2002):
‰ Within the context of quantum field theory the vacuum is the seat of all energetic particle and
field fluctuations.
‰ Within the context of general relativity theory the vacuum is the seat of a spacetime structure (or
metric) that encodes the distribution of matter and energy.
We begin our look into this concept by examining the propagation of light through space. We know
from quantum field theory that light propagating through space interacts with the vacuum quantum fields
(a.k.a. vacuum quantum field fluctuations). The observable properties of light, including the speed of
light, are determined by these interactions. Vacuum quantum interactions with light lead to an effect on
the speed of light that is due to the absorption of photons (by the vacuum) to form virtual electronpositron
pairs followed by the quick re-emission (from the vacuum) of the photon (see Figure 4). The
virtual particle pairs are very short lived because of the large mismatch between the energy of a photon
and the rest mass-energy of the particle pair. A key point is that this process makes a contribution to the
observed vacuum permittivity ε0 (and permeability µ0) constant and, therefore, to the speed of light c [c =
(ε0µ0)
−1/2].
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Figure 4. A Schematic of Vacuum Quantum Field Fluctuations (a.k.a. Vacuum
Zero Point Field Fluctuations) Involved in the “Light-by-Light” Scattering
Process That Affects the Speed of Light (from Chown, 1990)
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The role of virtual particle pairs in determining the ε0 (µ0) of the vacuum is analogous to that of
atoms/molecules in determining the relative permittivity ε (and µ) of a dielectric material. We know that
the absorption/re-emission of photons by atoms/molecules in a transparent medium (note: there are no
strongly absorbing resonances, so the atoms/molecules remain in their excited states for a very short time
before re-emitting photons) is responsible for the refractive index of the medium, which results in the
reduction of the speed of light for photons propagating through the medium. This absorption/re-emission
process is also known in physics as a scattering process. We know from experiment that a change in the
medium leads to a change in ε (µ), thus resulting in a change of the refractive index. The key point
arising from this analogy is that a modification of the vacuum produces a change in ε0 (µ0) resulting in a
subsequent change in c, and hence, a corresponding change in the vacuum refraction index.
Scharnhorst (1990) and Latorre et al. (1995) have since proved that the suppression of light scattering
by virtual particle pairs (a.k.a. coherent light-by-light scattering) in the vacuum causes an increase in the
speed of light accompanied by a decrease in the vacuum refraction index. This very unique effect is
accomplished in a Casimir Effect capacitor cavity (or waveguide) whereby the vacuum quantum field
fluctuations (a.k.a. zero-point fluctuations or ZPF) inside have been modified (becoming anisotropic and
non-translational invariant) to satisfy the electromagnetic boundary conditions imposed by the presence of
the capacitor plates (or waveguide walls). The principal result of this modification is the removal of the
electromagnetic zero-point energy (ZPE) due to the suppression of vacuum ZPE modes with wavelengths
longer than the cavity/waveguide cutoff (λ0 = 2d, where d = plate separation; see Figure 5). This removal
of free space vacuum ZPE modes suppresses the scattering of light by virtual particle pairs, thus
producing the speed of light increase (and corresponding decrease in the vacuum refraction index). We
know from standard optical physics and quantum electrodynamics (QED) that the optical phase and group
velocities can exceed c under certain physical conditions, but dispersion always ensures that the signal
velocity is ≤ c. But recent QED calculations (see, Scharnhorst, 1990 and Latorre et al., 1995) have
proved that in the Casimir Effect system, the dispersive effects are much weaker still than those
associated with the increase in c so that the phase, group and signal velocities will therefore all increase
by the same amount. Note that, in general, no dispersion shows up in all of the modified vacuum effects
examined by investigators.
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Figure 5. A Schematic of the Casimir Effect Cavity/Waveguide (from Chown, 1990)
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16
Examples demonstrating the increase in light speed (decrease in vacuum refraction index) via the
Casimir Effect vacuum and other modified vacuum effects, as well as those effects producing a decrease
in light speed (increase in vacuum refraction index), are described as follows. The vacuum modification
effect on the speed of light described in the previous paragraph is (Scharnhorst, 1990):
4
62 4 00 0
0
2
2
4
11 1 ( 1) 2 (45) ( )
11 1 1 1
8100 ( )
e
e
c e
c
c ma
m a
ε µ
π
α
∗
⊥
=+ == = =
=+ >
= i (2.13),
where c⊥
*
is the (modified) speed of light propagation perpendicular to the Casimir Effect capacitor
plates, c0 is the speed of light in free space (3×108
m/s in MKS units), me is the electron mass, α is the fine
structure constant (≈ 1/137), e is the electron charge (e
2
= 4πα in quantum field theory natural units), a is
the plate separation, ħ is Planck’s reduced constant, and ε0 is the vacuum permittivity constant. The
condition ħ = c0 = ε0 = µ0 = 1 stresses that (2.13), and all the equations that follow, are in quantum field
theory natural units. The speed of light and vacuum refraction index measured parallel to the plates is
unchanged from their free space values (c|| = c0, n|| = n0 = 1). The modified vacuum refraction index
measured perpendicular to the plates is (Scharnhorst, 1990):
4
62 4 00 0
11 1 1 ( 1) 2 (45) ( ) e
e
n c
m a
⊥ ε µ
=− < == = =
= i (2.14).
Equations (2.13) and (2.14) show that in general n⊥ < 1 and c⊥
*
> c0. But c⊥
* → c0 and n⊥ → 1 when a →
∞ as expected, since we are now allowing all of the vacuum ZPE modes to re-enter the Casimir cavity in
this case.
We now survey the additional examples of modified vacuums which increase/decrease light speed
(from Latorre et al., 1995):
‰ For light (photons) propagating in a Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW) vacuum (i.e., a
homogeneous and isotropic Robertson-Walker gravitational background with Friedmann
cosmology):
2 00 0
0
11 1 1 ( 1) 45
r
e
c p G c
c m
ρ α εµ
∗ +
=+ > == = =
= (2.15),
where c
*
is the modified vacuum speed of light, G is Newton’s constant, ρr is the energy density and p is
the pressure of a radiation-dominated universe (p = ρr/3). Here the speed of light is increased.
‰ For light (photons) propagating in a homogeneous and isotropic thermal vacuum:
2 4
2
4 00 0
0
44 1 1 ( 1) 2025 B
e
c T c k
c m
π
α εµ
∗
=− < == = = =
= (2.16),
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where T is the temperature of the vacuum and kB is the Boltzmann constant. Here the speed of light is
decreased.
‰ For light (photons) propagating in an anisotropic vacuum given by an external constant uniform
magnetic field B:
2
2 2
4 00 0
0
2
2 2
4
0
8 1 sin 1 ( 1) 45
14 1 sin 1
45
e
e
c
c
c m
c
c m
α θ εµ
α θ
∗
∗
⊥
=− < == = =
=− <
B
B
& =
(2.17),
where the speed of light is decreased in this vacuum for polarizations coplanar (||) with and perpendicular
(⊥) to the plane defined by B and the direction of propagation, and θ is the angle between B and the
direction of propagation. Latorre et al. (1995) calculated the polarization-average of (2.17) to give the
averaged (modified) speed of light in the B-field:
2
2
4 00 0
0
22 1 1 ( 1) 135 e
c
c
c m
α εµ
∗
=− < == = =
B = (2.18).
‰ For light (photons) propagating in an anisotropic vacuum given by an external constant uniform
electric field E, the polarization-averaged modified speed of light is:
2
2
4 00 0
0
22 1 1 ( 1) 135 e
c
c
c m
α εµ
∗
=− < == = =
E = (2.19).
Here the speed of light is decreased.
Equations (2.16) – (2.19) are the result of vacuum modifications that populate the vacuum with
virtual or real particles that induce coherent (light-by-light) scattering, which reduces the speed of
massless particles. By examining the form of equations (2.13) and (2.15) – (2.19) Latorre et al. (1995)
discovered that the low energy modification of the speed of light is proportional to the ratio of the
modified vacuum energy density (as compared to the standard vacuum energy density, ρvac = 0) over me
4
,
with a universal numerical coefficient and the corresponding coupling constants. And a general rule
became apparent from their analysis that is applicable to modified vacua for massive and massless
quantum field theories, for low energy:
c
*
> c0 (vacuum refraction index < 1) when the modified vacuum has a lower energy density
c
*
< c0 (vacuum refraction index > 1) when the modified vacuum has a higher energy density
c
*
= c0 (vacuum refraction index = 1) when the vacuum is free (or un-modified) with ρvac = 0
The first two rules explain the sign of the change of the speed of light. From this rule and the
mathematical commonality between the form of (2.13) and (2.15) – (2.19) Latorre et al. (1995) found a
single unifying expression to replace these equations:
2
4 00 0
0
44 1 ( 1) 135 e
c
c
c m
ρ α εµ
∗
=− = = = = = (2.20),
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where ρ is the energy density of the modified vacua under consideration such that ρ → ρE ~ E2
for the
electric field vacuum, ρ → ρB ~ B2
for the magnetic field vacuum, and ρ → ρT ~ π2
T4
for the thermal
vacuum. If the vacuum is a FRW gravitational vacuum, then one has to substitute one factor of α in
(2.20) by −me
2
G and ρ → ρr. Equation (2.13) for the Casimir Effect vacuum studied earlier is recovered
when ρ → ρCasimir = −(π2
/240)a−4
.
Let us recast (2.20) into a more useful form. We subtract one from both sides of (2.20), do some
algebra, and thus define the ratio of the change in the speed of light ∆c in a modified vacuum to the speed
of light in free space c0:
0
0 00
1 c c c c
c cc
∗ ∗ − ∆ −= ≡
2
4 00 0
0
44 ( 1) 135 e
c
c
c m
ρ α εµ
∆ =− = = = = = (2.21).
Equations (2.20) and (2.21) are in quantum field theory natural units, which is completely undesirable for
estimating physically measurable values of ∆c/c0. We thus transform or “unwrap” (2.20) and (2.21) back
into MKS or CGS units by making the following substitutions (Puthoff, 2003)
(natural units) (MKS or CGS units)
c
ρ ρ →
=
(natural units) (MKS or CGS units) e
e
m c
m →
= ,
and after some algebra and rearranging we arrive at the final result:
3
2
2
0 00
44 1
135 e e
c
c mc mc
ρ α
∗ = −
= (2.22)
and
3
2
2
0 00
44
135 e e
c
c mc mc
ρ α
∆ = −
= (2.23),
where all quantities are now in MKS or CGS units. We chose the former units so that c0 = 3×108
m/s, ħ =
1.055×10−34 J-s, me = 9.11×10−31 kg, and α = 1/137. Note that the ratio of the modified vacuum energy
density to the electron rest-mass energy has the dimension of (volume)
−1
while the quantity in the bracket
is the cubed Compton wavelength of the electron having the dimension of (volume), and the product of
these is dimensionless.
An excellent example for estimating the magnitude of the change in the speed of light (in a modified
vacuum) is the Casimir Effect vacuum, since Casimir Effect experiments are common and widespread
such that this would be ideal to experimentally test (2.23). We substitute the Casimir vacuum energy
density ρCasimir = −(π2
ħc0/240)a−4
(in MKS units) into (2.23), do the algebra, insert the MKS values for the
physical constants, and make further simplifications to get:
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( )
3 2
2 0
4 2
0 00
4
2 2
0
56 4
44 1
135 240
11
8100
1.59 10
e e
e
c c
c a mc mc
mca
a
π
α
α π
− −
∆ =− −
=
≈ ×
= =
= (2.24),
where a (the plate separation) is in meters. Another useful equation is:
0
0
1 c
c c
c
∗ ∆
= +
(2.25),
where we make the substitution c
* → c⊥
*
for the present case. H. E. Puthoff and the author (Puthoff,
2003) compared the third line in (2.24) with equation (26) in Scharnhorst (1990) and discovered that the
result cited there is in error, because the numerical coefficient is four orders of magnitude too small
(Scharnhorst originally pointed out this error to Forward, 1996).
We now set a = 10−6
m (1 µm) and we get ∆c/c0 ≈ 10−32 and c⊥
* ≈ c0, which is a horrifically small 1
part in 1032 change that we cannot hope to measure at present. But for a = 10−10 m (1 Å) we get ∆c/c0 ≈
10−16 and c⊥
* ≈ c0, which is a 1 part in 1016 change that could be measurable at present or in the very near
future using high precision laser technology. Last, for a = 1.1229×10−14 m (11.229 fm or ≈ 11 times the
nuclear diameter; 1 fm = 10−15 m) we find that ∆c/c0 ≈ 1 and c⊥
* ≈ 2c0. We are not able to do technical
work at nuclear distances at this time; however, that could change as ultrahigh precision measurement
technology continues to evolve. The threshold for the onset of significant changes in light speed occurs
when a < 10−12 m. This result is generally true for the other modified vacua surveyed in (2.15) – (2.19),
since accessible (everyday) values for electric and magnetic field strengths, thermal temperatures and
radiation densities are not large enough to overcome the size of the electron mass to create a measurable
effect. However, there is a class of ultrahigh intensity tabletop lasers that have achieved such extreme
electric and magnetic field strengths and temperatures that it may now be possible to consider using them
to explore vacuum modification effects in the lab. We will return to this theme in a later section.
•Key Point: As disappointing as the Casimir Effect vacuum (and other modified vacua) results are, it
should be strongly pointed out that special relativity theory says that if in one inertial reference frame an
object travels only one part in 1016 (or even one part in 1032) times faster than c0, then one can find
another reference frame where departure and arrival times of the object are simultaneous, and thus the
velocity is infinite. This is what motivates us to look at a teleportation mechanism based on engineering
of the vacuum.
•Technical Notes:
¾ Equation (2.15) is interpreted as an increase in the speed of light due to a decrease in the
number of vacuum ZPE modes. However, this effect is totally unrelated to light-by-light
scattering in the vacuum because the gravitational background “squeezes” (as in squeezed
quantum optics states; see Davis, 1999a) the ZPE modes, therefore reducing the vacuum
energy density. We further note that the coefficient of 11 is the same for the gravitational
vacuum as for the other modified vacua examples based on QED. This factor also appears in
the coefficient of the Euler-Poincare characteristic spin-½ contribution to the gravitational
trace anomaly (Birrell and Davies, 1982). It is beyond the scope of this study to consider the
deep connections between quantum field theory and gravitation.
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¾ We have excluded from our survey the Latorre et al. (1995) results pertaining to all other
(high or low energy) modifications of the speed of massless particles. That is because the
other examples invoked different QED theories possessing massless (me = 0), massive and
intrinsic mass scales that introduced complex correction terms (beyond the leading low
energy terms surveyed above) which are mass-related or running mass-related, and they
introduced no new speed modification effects (beyond the low energy electron-positron
virtual pair contributions); or no genuine speed modification was possible (especially for the
massless Quantum Chromodynamic sector involving pseudo-Goldstone particles).
¾ There is ongoing (very noisy) controversy within the physics community over the effects of
c
*
> c0 on causality. As this topic is beyond the scope of this study, I will make three points
in this regard: 1) There are no grounds for microcausality violations in accordance with
Drummond and Hathrell (1980). 2) A new definition of causality is in order for FTL (fasterthan-light)
phenomena. 3) Investigators have found that time machines (a.k.a. closed
timelike curves) do not affect Gauss’s theorem, and thus do not affect the derivation of global
conservation laws from differential ones (Friedman et al., 1990). The standard conservation
laws remain globally valid while retaining a natural quasi-local interpretation for spacetimes
possessing time machines (for example, asymptotically flat wormhole spacetimes). Thorne
(1993) states that it may turn out that causality is violated at the macroscopic scale. Even if
causality is obeyed macroscopically, then quantum gravity might offer finite probability
amplitudes for microscopic spacetime histories possessing time machines. Li and Gott
(1998) found a self-consistent vacuum for quantum fields in Misner space (a simple flat space
with closed timelike curves), for which the renormalized stress-energy tensor is regular (in
fact zero) everywhere. This implies that closed timelike curves could exist at least at the
level of semi-classical quantum gravity theory. Therefore, FTL causality paradoxes are just a
reflection of our ignorance or inadequate comprehension of the physics of chronology and
causality.
In this section we have shown how “vacuum engineering” can modify the speed of light, and how this
can, in principle, lead to vm-Teleportation. The vacuum modification concepts summarized above lead
us to a formal theory that implements the concept of vacuum engineering within a framework that
parallels general relativity theory. This theory is called the Polarizable-Vacuum Representation of
General Relativity. In the next section we will introduce and summarize this theory.
2.2.1 The Polarizable-Vacuum Representation of General Relativity
The polarizable-vacuum representation of general relativity (a.k.a. PV-GR) treats the vacuum as a
polarizable medium of variable refractive index (Puthoff, 1999a, 2002a, b; Puthoff et al., 2002)
exemplifying the concept of the vacuum modification (or vacuum engineering) effects surveyed and
discussed in the previous section. The PV-GR approach treats spacetime metric changes in terms of
equivalent changes in the vacuum permittivity and permeability constants (ε0 and µ0), essentially along
the lines of the “THεµ” methodology (see Appendix B for a brief description of this) used in comparative
studies of alternative metric theories of gravity (Lightman and Lee, 1973; Will, 1974, 1989, 1993;
Haugan and Will, 1977). Such an approach, relying as it does on parameters familiar to engineers, can be
considered a “metric engineering” approach. Maxwell's equations in curved space are treated in the
isomorphism of a polarizable medium of variable refractive index in flat space (Volkov et al., 1971); the
bending of a light ray near a massive body is modeled as due to an induced spatial variation in the
refractive index of the vacuum near the body; the reduction in the velocity of light in a gravitational
potential is represented by an effective increase in the refractive index of the vacuum, and so forth. This
optical-engineering approach has been shown to be quite general (de Felice, 1971; Evans et al., 1996a, b).
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As recently elaborated by Puthoff (1999a, 2002a, b; Puthoff et al., 2002) the PV-GR approach, which
was first introduced by Wilson (1921) and then developed by Dicke (1957, 1961), can be carried out in a
self-consistent way so as to reproduce to appropriate order both the equations of general relativity and the
match to the standard astrophysics weak-field experimental (PPN parameters and other) tests of those
equations while posing testable modifications for strong-field conditions. It is in application that the PVGR
approach demonstrates its intuitive appeal and provides additional insight into what is meant by a
curved spacetime metric.
Specifically, the PV-GR approach treats such measures as the speed of light, the length of rulers
(atomic bond lengths), the frequency of clocks, particle masses, and so forth, in terms of a variable
vacuum dielectric constant K in which the vacuum permittivity ε0 transforms as ε0 → Kε0 and the vacuum
permeability transforms as µ0 → Kµ0 (see also, Rucker, 1977). In a planetary or solar gravitational
potential K = exp(2GM/rc0
2
) > 1 (M is a local mass distribution, r is the radial distance from the center of
M) while K = 1 in “empty” or free asymptotic space (Puthoff, 1999a, 2002a, b; Puthoff et al., 2002). In
the former case, the speed of light is reduced, light emitted from an atom is redshifted as compared with a
remote static atom (where K = 1), clocks run slower, objects/rulers shrink, etc. See Table 1.
Table 1. Metric Effects in the PV-GR Model When K > 1 (Compared With
Reference Frames at Asymptotic Infinity Where K = 1; adapted from Puthoff et al., 2002)
Variable Determining Equation
(subscript 0 is asymptotic value
where K = 1)
K > 1
(typical mass distribution, M)
modified speed of light c
*
(K) c
*
= c0/K speed of light < c0
Modified mass m(K) m = m0K3/2 effective mass increases
modified frequency ω(K) ω = ω0K−1/2 redshift toward lower frequencies
modified time interval ∆t(K) ∆t = ∆t0K1/2 clocks run slower
modified energy E(K) E = E0K−1/2 lower energy states
Modified length L(K) L = L0K−1/2 objects/rulers shrink
dielectric-vacuum
“gravitational” forces F(K)
F(K) ∝ ∇K attractive gravitational force
When K = 1 we have the condition that c
*
= c0 (vacuum refraction index = 1), because the vacuum is
free (or un-modified, and ρvac = 0) in this case. When K > 1, as occurs in a region of space possessing a
gravitational potential, then we have the condition that c
*
< c0 (vacuum refraction index > 1), because the
modified vacuum has a higher energy density in the presence of the local mass distribution that generates
the local gravitational field. This fact allows us to make a direct correspondence between the speed of
light modification physics discussion in Section 2.2 and the underlying basis for the physics of the PVGR
model. Under certain conditions the spacetime metric can in principle be modified to reduce the
value of K to below unity, thus allowing for faster-than-light (FTL) motion to be physically realized. In
this case, the local speed of light (as measured by remote static observers) is increased, light emitted from
an atom is blueshifted as compared with a remote static atom, objects/rulers expand, clocks run faster, etc.
See Table 2. We therefore have the condition that c
*
> c0 (vacuum refraction index < 1) because the
modified vacuum has a lower energy density. In fact, Puthoff (1999a, 2002a) has analyzed certain special
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black hole metrics and found K < 1 from the model. We will return to this theme later. In what follows
we briefly review and summarize the key points and equations from the development of the PV-GR
model, and we refer the reader to Puthoff (1999a, 2002a, b) for more extensive discussion and
derivations.
Table 2. Metric Effects in the PV-GR Model When K < 1 (Compared With
Reference Frames at Asymptotic Infinity Where K = 1; adapted from Puthoff et al., 2002)
Variable Determining Equation
(subscript 0 is asymptotic
value where K = 1)
K < 1
(typical mass distribution, M)
modified speed of light c
*
(K) c
*
= c0/K speed of light > c0
modified mass m(K) m = m0K3/2 effective mass decreases
modified frequency ω(K) ω = ω0K−1/2 blueshift toward higher frequencies
modified time interval ∆t(K) ∆t = ∆t0K1/2 clocks run faster
modified energy E(K) E = E0K−1/2 higher energy states
modified length L(K) L = L0K−1/2 objects/rulers expand
dielectric-vacuum
“gravitational” forces F(K)
F(K) ∝ ∇K repulsive gravitational force
We begin by recalling that in flat space electrodynamics, the electric flux vector D in a linear,
homogeneous medium can be written
0
0 V
ε
ε
ε α
=
= +
= +
D E
E P
E E
(2.26),
where ε is the permittivity of the medium, the polarization P corresponds to the induced dipole moment
per unit volume in the medium whose polarizability per unit volume is αV, and E is the electric field. The
identical form of the last two terms naturally leads to the interpretation of ε0 as the polarizability per unit
volume of the vacuum. The quantum picture of the vacuum, where it has been shown that the vacuum
acts as a polarizable medium by virtue of induced dipole moments resulting from the excitation of virtual
electron-positron particle pairs (Heitler, 1954), completely justifies the interpretation that the vacuum is a
medium. Note that there are other virtual particle pairs in the vacuum that also contribute to this picture;
however, it is the electron-positron pairs that dominate the others, as shown in Section 2.2. The basic
postulate of the PV-GR model for curved space conditions is that the polarizability of the vacuum in the
vicinity of localized mass-energy distributions differs from its asymptotic free space value by virtue of
vacuum polarization effects induced by the presence of the local mass-energy. Thus the postulate for the
vacuum itself is
K 0
ε
ε
=
≡
D E
E (2.27),
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where K (a function of position) is the modified dielectric constant of the vacuum due to the induced
vacuum polarizability changes under consideration. Equation (2.27) defines the transformation ε = Kε0.
Table 1 shows the various quantitative effects a polarizable vacuum (in the presence of positive massenergy
distributions) has on the various measurement processes important to general relativity. The
effects demonstrated in the middle and right columns demonstrate the basis of the polarizable vacuum
approach to general relativity. Table 2 shows what effects are manifested when negative mass-energy
distributions induce vacuum polarizability changes that lead to FTL phenomenon. Experimental
observations impose constraints on the model causing key physical constants to remain constant even
with variable polarizability present in the local space. Puthoff (1999a, 2002a, b) has shown that the fine
structure constant is constrained by observational data to remain constant within a variable polarizable
vacuum, and this constraint actually defines the transformation µ = Kµ0. The elementary particle charge e
is also taken to be constant in a variable polarizable vacuum because of charge conservation. And ħ
remains a constant by conservation of angular momentum for circularly polarized photons propagating
through the (variable polarizability) vacuum. The remaining constant of nature is the speed of light, and
although the tables showed how this was modified in variable polarizability vacuums, it is interesting to
see how this modification comes about. In a modified (variable polarizability) vacuum the speed of light
is defined, as it is in standard electrodynamics, in terms of the permittivity and permeability by:
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 2
1 2
0 0
1 2 2
0 0
1 2
0 0
0
1
c
K K
K
K
c
K
εµ
ε µ
ε µ
ε µ
∗ −
−
−
−
≡
=
=
=
=
i
(2.28),
where the permittivity/permeability transformations and the free space (un-modified vacuum) definition
for c0 were inserted. Note that (2.28) can be re-written as c
*
/c0 = 1/K, and this is to be compared with
(2.22). Thus we see from (2.28), and by comparison with (2.22), that K plays the role of a variable
refractive index under conditions in which the vacuum polarizability is assumed to change in response to
general relativistic-type influences. One further note of interest is that the permittivity/permeability
transformations also maintains constant the ratio
0
0
µ µ
ε ε
= ,
which is the impedance of free space. This constant ratio is required to keep electric-to-magnetic energy
ratios constant during adiabatic movement of atoms from one position in space to another of differing
vacuum polarizability (Dicke, 1957, 1961). And this constant ratio is also a necessary condition in the
THεµ formalism for an electromagnetic test particle to fall in a gravitational field with a compositionindependent
acceleration (Lightman and Lee, 1973; Will, 1974, 1989, 1993; Haugan and Will, 1977).
Now we make the “crossover connection” to the standard spacetime metric tensor concept that
characterizes conventional general relativity theory, as originally shown by Puthoff (1999a, 2002a, b). In
flat (un-modified or free) space the standard four-dimensional infinitesimal spacetime interval ds2
is given
(in Cartesian coordinates with subscript 0) by
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24
3
2 22 2
00 0
1
i
i
ds c dt dx =
=− +∑ (2.29),
where i ≡ (1 = x, 2 = y, 3 = z). This metric means that measuring rods and clocks are non-varying
wherever one goes in spacetime to make measurements. However, this has been shown to be incorrect in
general relativity theory, so the length and time transformations (between proper and coordinate values)
given in the tables (middle columns) indicate that measuring rods and clocks do vary when placed in
regions where K ≠ 1. Therefore, we replace the time and space differentials in (2.29) with the length and
time transformations in the tables into (2.29), and derive the general relativistic spacetime interval
3
2 22 2
0
1
1 i
i
ds c dt K dx
K =
=− + ∑ (2.30).
Note that observers within a K ≠ 1 region will always measure the speed of light to be c0. Equation (2.30)
defines an isotropic coordinate system, which is a common and useful way to represent spacetime metrics
in general relativity studies. By inspection the metric tensor is written
1 000
0 00
00 0
0 00
K
K
g K
K
αβ
−
=
(2.31).
The Lagrangian density for matter-field interactions in a vacuum of variable K is given by Puthoff
(1999a, 2002a, b) as
( )
2 2
0 0 3
0
0
4 2 2
0 2
0 2 2
0 0
1 ()
1 11 ( ) 2 32
i
d i
m c v L q qAv K c K
c K K K
K GK t c K
δ
ε
µ π
=− − + Φ− −
∂ − − − ∇− ∂
2
r r
B E
(2.32),
where the first term is the Lagrangian density for a free particle of mass m0, charge q and 3-vector
velocity v (v = |v|, 3-vector components are labeled by i) interacting with electromagnetic fields via the
electromagnetic field 4-vector potential Aµ = (Φ, Ai) (note that δ3
(r – r0) is the delta function that locates
the point particle at position r = r0); the second term is the Lagrangian density for the electromagnetic
fields themselves, and the last term is the Lagrangian density for K (treated here as a scalar variable).
This last term emulates the Lagrangian density for the gravitational field. Equation (2.32) does not
include any quantum gauge field interaction terms because it is beyond the scope of the present
incarnation of the PV-GR approach to include them. We can obtain the equations of particle motion in a
variable dielectric vacuum by performing the standard variations of the Lagrangian density δ(∫ Ld dx dy dz
dt) with respect to the particle variables. However, we are more interested in obtaining the “master
equation” for K by varying the Lagrangian density with respect to K, and Puthoff (1999a, 2002a, b) gives
the result:
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( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
0
2 2
0 0 3
4 0 2
0 0
0
2 2 4
2 2 0
0 2 2
0 0
1
8 1 1 () 2
1
1 11 ( ) 2 32
K K
c K t
G v mc K
K
c cK
v
c K
c K K K
K GK t c K
π δ
ε
µ π
∂ ∇ −
∂
=− + − −
∂ + + − ∇+ ∂
r r
B E
(2.33).
This equation describes the generation of general relativistic vacuum polarization effects due to the
presence of matter and fields. By inspecting the right-hand side of the equation, we observe that changes
in K are driven by the mass density (1st term), electromagnetic energy density (2nd term), and the vacuum
polarization energy density itself (3rd term). In fact, the 3rd term emulates the gravitational field selfenergy
density. Note that the 2nd and 3rd terms in (2.33) appear with opposite signs with the result that
electromagnetic field effects can counteract the gravitational field effects. Puthoff found that (2.33) gives
the solution K = exp(2GM/rc0
2
) in the vicinity of a static spherically symmetric (uncharged) mass M (in
the low velocity limit v << c0, ∂K/∂t = 0, E = B = 0, q = 0), which reproduces to appropriate order the
standard general relativistic Schwarzschild spacetime metric for the weak gravitational field conditions
prevailing in the solar system. This solution guarantees that K > 1 near mass concentrations.
Of major importance to the present study are solutions giving K < 1 so that teleportation can be
realized. Puthoff has found one such solution by studying the case of a static spherically symmetric mass
M with charge Q familiar from the study of the Reissner-Nordstrφm spacetime metric. In this case
Puthoff found the result
( )
2
22 22
2 2
2 2
cos sin ba a ba K ba
r r b a
− − =+ >
−
(2.34),
where a
2
= (GM/c0
2
)
2
, b2
= Q2
G/4πε0c0
4
, and r is the radial distance from the center of M. And in this case
(2.34) gives K < 1, which shows that FTL solutions are available in the PV-GR approach (as they are also
in the Einstein theory). (For a
2
> b2
the solution is hyperbolic-trigonometric and describes the standard
Reissner-Nordstrφm metric where K > 1.)
Generally speaking, in Einstein general relativity the Reissner-Nordstrφm metric can be manipulated
along with two shells of electrically charged matter to form a traversable wormhole (Schein and
Aichelburg, 1996). But there are two drawbacks to this. The first is that the scheme involves dealing
with the collapsed state of the stellar matter that generates the metric (a.k.a. Reissner-Nordstrφm black
hole) along with the unpleasant side effects that are encountered, such as the crushing singularities and
multiple (unstable) event horizons. Second, the traversable wormhole is an eternal time machine
connecting remote regions of the same universe together. Now there are no black hole solutions found in
the PV-GR model because in that approach stellar matter collapses smoothly to an ultra-dense state and
without the creation of singularities and event horizons (Puthoff, 1999b).
In either case, the Reissner-Nordstrφm metric does not offer a viable mechanism for vmTeleportation.
We are more interested in examining other PV-GR cases (where K < 1 or even K << 1)
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26
that emulate the effects of traversable wormhole metrics that do obey the vm-Teleportation definition,
such as the example presented in Section 2.1. Equation (2.33) suggests that we search for a vacuum
engineering concept that exploits electromagnetic fields to alter the vacuum dielectric constant K to
induce the desired vm-Teleportation effect in the modified vacuum. (However, we can insert other source
terms that will lead to the desired result.) We envision this particular teleportation concept to resemble
Figure 2. [Note: Before this report went to press H. E. Puthoff, C. Maccone and the author discovered a
number of K < 1 solutions to equation (2.33) that uniquely meet the definition of vm-Teleportation and
FTL motion. We discovered that the generic energy density required to generate K < 1 solutions must be
negative, and that the total energy density of the system as seen by remote observes is approximately
zero. This unique result compares very well with the traversable wormhole mass-energy density
requirements discussed in Section 2.1.2. This discovery will be the subject of a forthcoming paper.]
2.3 Conclusion and Recommendations
The concept we envision for vm-Teleportation is that animate or inanimate objects would be placed
inside an environmentally enclosed vessel that would simply be moved into the teleportation device. The
“teleporter” would be activated, and the vessel would almost immediately disappear and then reappear at
the remote destination as if it were briefly moving through a portal or “stargate.” The teleportation device
might be required to operate in the vacuum of space outside of the Earth’s atmosphere. We have shown
two practically equivalent ways to implement vm-Teleportation. There is the manipulation of spacetime
geometry via exploiting negative (i.e., quantum vacuum zero point) energy as shown by Einstein’s
general relativity theory, and there is the modification of the vacuum dielectric constant as shown by the
PV-GR model. Both have a great deal of theoretical foundation to begin exploring experimentally. The
PV-GR model needs additional theoretical work for the present application, but it is now mature enough
for experimental exploration.
There already is extensive theoretical, and more importantly, experimental research proving that the
vacuum can be engineered (or physically modified) so that the vacuum ZPE can be exploited (via the
Casimir Effect, for example) to extract electrical energy or actuate microelectromechanical devices (see
for example, Ambjφrn and Wolfram, 1983; Forward, 1984, 1996, 1998; Puthoff, 1990, 1993; Cole and
Puthoff, 1993; Milonni, 1994; Mead and Nachamkin, 1996; Lamoreaux, 1997; Chan et al., 2001, and the
references cited therein). But most of this research involves very low energy density regimes, which are
much too low for our purposes. The Mead and Nachamkin (1996) device is actually designed to extract
electrical energy from the higher frequency/higher energy density ZPE modes. However, new ultrahighintensity
lasers became available in the 1990s that have achieved extreme physical conditions in the lab
that are comparable to the extreme astrophysical conditions expected to be found in stellar cores and on
black hole event horizons (Perry, 1996; Mourou et al., 1998; Perry, 2000). The power intensity of these
lasers has reached the point to where they actually probe QED vacuum physics and general relativistic
physics, and they have even modified the vacuum itself. The lasers were originally called petaWatt lasers
(operating range of 1014 – 1018 Watts/cm2
at femtosecond pulses), but they have now reached power
intensity levels in the 1025 – 1030 Watts/cm2
range. The lasers were made possible by a novel
breakthrough called “chirped pulse amplification” whereby the initial low energy/low power intensity
laser beam is stretched, amplified and then compressed without experiencing any beam distortions or
amplifier damage. This laser system was initially designed as a large-optics beam-line power booster for
the NOVA laser fusion experiment at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. But researchers found a
way to shrink the optics down to tabletop scale, and one can now own and operate a tabletop ultrahighintensity
laser for ≈ $500,000. The dimensions of the optical bench used by the University of CaliforniaSan
Diego is ≈ 5 m × 12 m (or ≈ 60 m2
; see Mourou et al., 1998). In tabletop lab experiments ultrahighintensity
lasers have generated >> gigagauss magnetic fields, ≥ 1016 Volt/cm electric field strengths, >>
terabar light pressures and >> 1022 m/sec2
subatomic particle accelerations. These ultrahigh-intensity
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27
tabletop lasers are thus the ideal instrument with which to explore the fundamental physics underlying the
two possible concepts for vm-Teleportation.
There are several ideas on how to generate negative energy in the lab that could potentially be
extracted and concentrated in the proper fashion to induce the traversable flat-face wormhole outlined in
Section 2.1.1 or induce the K < 1 condition (in the PV-GR model) outlined in Section 2.2.1. The schemes
for generating negative energy are:
‰ Casimir Effect (described in Section 2.2): This is the easiest and most well known way to
generate negative energy in the lab. The energy density ρCasimir = −(π2
ħc0/240)a−4
within a
Casimir capacitor cavity is negative and manifests itself by producing a force of attraction
between the capacitor plates. This has been measured in the lab (see above references). Forward
(1998) proposes a mechanism for the endless extraction of energy from the vacuum in a Casimir
cavity by cyclic manipulation of the cavity dimensions.
‰ Moving Mirror: Negative quantum vacuum energy can be created by a single moving reflecting
surface (a moving mirror). If a mirror moves with increasing acceleration, then a flux of negative
energy emanates from its surface and flows out into the space ahead of the mirror (Birrell and
Davies, 1982). However, this effect is known to be exceedingly small, and it is not the most
effective way to generate negative energy.
‰ Optically Squeezed Laser Light: Negative quantum vacuum energy can also be generated by an
array of ultrahigh intensity lasers with an ultrafast rotating mirror system. In this scheme a laser
beam is passed through an optical cavity resonator made of lithium niobate crystal that is shaped
like a cylinder with rounded silvered ends to reflect light. The resonator will act to produce a
secondary lower frequency light beam in which the pattern of photons is rearranged into pairs.
This is the quantum optical “squeezing” of light effect. (See Section A.2 in Appendix A for a
complete definition and description of squeezed quantum states.) Therefore, the squeezed light
beam emerging from the resonator will contain pulses of negative energy interspersed with pulses
of positive energy. Another way to squeeze light would be to manufacture extremely reliable
light pulses containing precisely one, two, three, etc. photons apiece and combine them together
to create squeezed states to order. Superimposing many such states could theoretically produce
bursts of intense negative energy. For the laser beam resonator example we find that both
negative and positive energy pulses are of ≈ 10−15 second duration. We could arrange a set of
rapidly rotating mirrors to separate the positive and negative energy pulses from each other. The
light beam is to strike each mirror surface at a very shallow angle while the rotation ensures that
the negative energy pulses are reflected at a slightly different angle from the positive energy
pulses. A small spatial separation of the two different energy pulses will occur at some distance
from the rotating mirror. Another system of mirrors will be needed to redirect the negative
energy pulses to an isolated location and concentrate them there.
‰ Gravitationally Squeezed Vacuum Energy: A natural source of negative quantum vacuum energy
comes from the effect that gravitational fields (of astronomical bodies) in space have upon the
surrounding vacuum. For example, the gravitational field of the Earth produces a zone of
negative energy around it by dragging some of the virtual particle pairs (a.k.a. virtual photons or
vacuum ZPF) downward. This concept was initially developed in the 1970s as a byproduct of
studies on quantum field theory in curved space (Birrell and Davies, 1982). However, Hochberg
and Kephart (1991) derived an important application of this concept to the problem of creating
and stabilizing traversable wormholes, and their work was corrected and extended by Davis
(1999a). They proved that one can utilize the negative vacuum energy densities, which arise
from distortion of the electromagnetic zero point fluctuations due to the interaction with a
prescribed gravitational background, for providing a violation of the energy conditions (see
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Section A.1 in Appendix A). Hochberg and Kephart (1991) showed that the squeezed quantum
states of quantum optics provide a natural form of matter having negative energy density. And
since the vacuum is defined to have vanishing energy density, anything possessing less energy
density than the vacuum must have a negative energy density. The analysis, via quantum optics,
shows that gravitation itself provides the mechanism for generating the squeezed vacuum states
needed to support stable traversable wormholes. The production of negative energy densities via
a squeezed vacuum is a necessary and unavoidable consequence of the interaction or coupling
between ordinary matter and gravity, and this defines what is meant by gravitationally squeezed
vacuum states. The magnitude of the gravitational squeezing of the vacuum can be estimated
from the squeezing condition, which simply states that substantial gravitational squeezing of the
vacuum occurs for those quantum electromagnetic field modes with wavelength (λ in meters) >
Schwarzschild radius (rS in meters) of the mass in question (whose gravitational field is
squeezing the vacuum). The Schwarzschild radius is the critical radius, according to general
relativity theory, at which a spherically symmetric massive body becomes a black hole; i.e., at
which light is unable to escape from the body’s surface. We can actually choose any radial
distance from the mass in question to perform this analysis, but using the Schwarzschild radius
makes equations simpler in form. The general result of the gravitational squeezing effect is that
as the gravitational field strength increases the negative energy zone (surrounding the mass) also
increases in strength. Table 3 shows when gravitational squeezing becomes important for
example masses. The table shows that in the case of the Earth, Jupiter and the Sun, this squeeze
effect is extremely feeble because only ZPF mode wavelengths above 0.2 m – 78 km are affected.
For a solar mass black hole (radius of 2.95 km), the effect is still feeble because only ZPF mode
wavelengths above 78 km are affected. But note from the table that quantum black holes with
Planck mass will have enormously strong negative energy surrounding them because all ZPF
mode wavelengths above 8.50 × 10−34 meter will be squeezed; in other words, all wavelengths of
interest for vacuum fluctuations. Black holes with proton mass will have the strongest negative
energy zone in comparison because the squeezing effect includes all ZPF mode wavelengths
above 6.50 × 10−53 meter. Furthermore, a black hole smaller than a nuclear diameter (≈ 10−16 m)
and containing the mass of a mountain (≈ 1011 kg) would possess a fairly strong negative energy
zone because all ZPF mode wavelengths above 10−15 meter will be squeezed.
Table 3. Substantial Gravitational Squeezing Occurs When
λ ≥ 8πrS (For Electromagnetic ZPF; adapted from Davis, 1999a)
Mass of body Schwarzschild radius of body, rS ZPF mode wavelength, λ
Sun = 2.0 × 1030 kg 2.95 km ≥ 78 km
Jupiter = 1.9 × 1027 kg 2.82 m ≥ 74 m
Earth = 5.976 × 1024 kg 8.87 × 10−3
m ≥ 0.23 m
Typical mountain ≈ 1011 kg ≈ 10−16 m ≥ 10−15 m
Planck mass = 2.18 × 10−8
kg 3.23 × 10−35 m ≥ 8.50 × 10−34 m
Proton = 1.673 × 10−27 kg 2.48 × 10−54 m ≥ 6.50 × 10−53 m
•Recommendations:
¾ Theoretical Program 1: A one to two year theoretical study (cost ≈ $80,000) should be initiated to
explore the recently discovered K < 1 (FTL) solutions to equation (2.33) in order to define,
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29
characterize and model the negative energy density source(s) that induce the FTL vacuum
modification. The study should also identify potential lab experiments designed to test theoretical
predictions.
¾ Theoretical Program 2: A one to two year study (cost ≈ $80,000) should be initiated to conduct a
detailed review of the negative energy generation schemes summarized above to define their
characteristics, performances and requirements. The study should develop technical parameters
for each of the schemes in order to identify potential lab experiments.
¾ Experimental Program 1: An experimental study should be conducted to test Forward’s (1998)
Casimir energy extraction proposal. An experiment definition study will be required to estimate
the experimental method, procedure, equipment needs and costs.
¾ Experimental Program 2: An experimental study using ultrahigh-intensity lasers should be
conducted to test the Optically Squeezed Laser Light proposal. An experiment definition study
will be required to estimate the experimental method, procedure, equipment needs and costs.
¾ Experimental Program 3: An experimental study using ultrahigh-intensity lasers should be
conducted to probe QED vacuum physics and vacuum modification as well as test elements of the
PV-GR model. A starting point for this program would be to use such lasers to perform the Ding
and Kaplan (1989, 1992, 2000; see also, Forward, 1996) experiment. This is an important
fundamental physics experiment to do, because it can distinguish between the rival quantum
vacuum electromagnetic ZPE fluctuation and fluctuating charged particle source field theory
models, which would settle the acrimonious debate over whether the vacuum really fluctuates or
not. R. L. Forward (1999) told the author that a Nobel Prize rides on performing this experiment
and settling the issue once and for all. The Ding and Kaplan proposal is already designed to
probe QED vacuum physics and vacuum modification. [The essence of the Ding and Kaplan
proposal is to demonstrate that a form of photon-photon scattering predicted by QED gives rise to
2nd-harmonic generation of intense laser radiation in a DC magnetic field due to the broken
symmetry of interaction (in the Feynman “box” diagram approximation). This effect is possible
only when the field system (optical wave + DC field) is inhomogeneous, in particular when a
Gaussian laser beam propagates in either a homogeneous or inhomogeneous DC magnetic field.
In other words, a vacuum region is filled with a DC magnetic field that polarizes the virtual
particle pairs (a.k.a. virtual photons) in the vacuum. This polarized vacuum then scatters incident
ultrahigh-intensity laser photons of frequency ν (energy E), thereby generating outgoing photons
of frequency 2ν (energy 2E).] An experiment definition study will be required to estimate the
experimental method, procedure, equipment needs and costs.
¾ Experimental Program 4: An experimental study using ultrahigh-intensity lasers should be
conducted to establish the extreme physical conditions necessary to test the strong-field limit of
general relativity with an emphasis on generating spacetime curvature and negative energy in
order to induce a putative micro-wormhole. (Experimental Programs 3 and 4 could be done
together to determine whether Puthoff’s PV-GR theory or Einstein’s general relativity theory is
the correct model for nature.) A Nobel Prize is in the offing if this question were to be addressed
and settled. An experiment definition study will be required to estimate the experimental method,
procedure, equipment needs and costs.
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3.0 q-TELEPORTATION
3.1 Teleportation Scenario
Future space explorers and their equipment will need to easily and quickly travel from an orbiting
spacecraft to the surface of some remote planet in order to get their work done, or military personnel in
the United States need to easily and quickly travel from their military base to another remote location on
Earth in order to participate in a military operation, or space colonists will need quick transport to get
from Earth to their new home planet. Instead of using conventional transportation to expedite travel the
space explorer, military personnel or space colonist and/or their equipment go into the “Teleporter” (a.k.a.
“Transporter” in Star Trek lingo) and are “beamed down” or “beamed over” to their destinations at light
speed. The mechanism for this teleportation process is hypothetically envisioned to be the following:
1. Animate/inanimate objects placed inside the teleporter are scanned by a computer-generated and -
controlled beam.
2. The scan beam encodes the entire quantum information contained within the animate/inanimate
object(s) into organized bits of information, thus forming a digital pattern of the object(s).
3. The scan beam then dematerializes the object(s) and stores its pattern in a pattern buffer, thus
transforming the atomic constituents of the dematerialized object(s) into a matter stream.
Alternative 1: The dematerialization process converts the atoms into a beam of pure energy.
Alternative 2: The scan beam does not dematerialize the object(s).
4. The teleporter then transmits the matter/pure energy stream and quantum information signal in
the form of an annular confinement beam to its destination. Alternative: Only the quantum
information signal is transmitted.
5. At the receiving teleporter the matter/pure energy stream is sent into a pattern buffer whereby it is
recombined with its quantum information, and the object(s) is rematerialized back into its original
form. Alternative 1: The receiving teleporter recombines the transmitted quantum information
with atoms stored inside a reservoir to form a copy of the original. Alternative 2: The quantum
information is reorganized in such a way as to display the object on some three-dimensional
(holographic) visual display system.
Problem: This generic scenario is modeled after teleportation schemes found in SciFi. There are a lot of
important little details that were left out of the teleportation process because we simply do not know what
they are. This technology does not yet exist. And we are left with the question of which one of the
alternative processes identified in items 3 – 5 one wants to choose from. The above scenario is only an
outline, and it is by no means complete since it merely serves to show what speculation exists on the
subject. The above scenario describes a speculative form of what we call q-Teleportation.
There are questions to be addressed in the above scenario. Does the teleporter transmit the atoms and
the quantum bit information signal that comprises the animate/inanimate object or just the quantum bit
information signal? There are ≈ 1028 atoms of matter combined together in a complex pattern to form a
human being. How does one transmit this much information and how do we disassemble that many
atoms? Computer information gurus would insist that it is not the atoms that matter but only the bits of
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information representing them when considering the transmission of large “bodies” of information. But
are humans simply the sum of all the atoms (and the related excited atom quantum states) that comprise
them? We could possibly learn to reconstitute a beam of atoms into a chemically accurate human being.
However, would this also include the reconstruction of a person’s consciousness (personality, memories,
hopes, dreams, etc.) and soul or spirit? This question is beyond the scope of this study to address, but it is
nevertheless one of the most important concepts awaiting a complete scientific understanding.
For the teleporter to process and transmit the quantum bit information signal that encodes the
animate/inanimate object’s pattern will require stupendous digital computer power. For each atom
comprising the object we must encode its location in space (three position coordinates), its linear and
angular momentum (three vector components for each quantity), and its internal quantum state (electron
orbital-energy levels and their excitation/de-excitation and ionization states, binding to other atoms to
form molecules, molecular vibrational/rotational states, bound nuclei states, spin states for electrons and
nuclei, etc.), etc. If we assume that we can digitally encode all of this information for a single atom with
a minimum of one kilobyte (1 byte = 8 bits, 1 bit ≡ 0 or 1) of data, then we will require a minimum of
1028 kilobytes to encode and store an entire human being (in three-dimensions). To digitally store and
access this much information at present (and for the foreseeable future) is nontrivial. It will take more
than 2,400 times the present age of the universe (≈ 13 billion years) to access this amount of data using
commercially available computers (operating at ≈ 10 gigabyte/sec). Top-of-the-line supercomputers will
not reduce this time significantly. The computer technology needed to handle such a large data storage
requirement simply does not exist. The largest commercially available computers can store ≈ 40
gigabytes on a single hard drive. We will need ≈ 1020 of these hard drives to store the encoded
information of just one human being. Also, wire and coaxial/fiber optic cables do not have the physical
capacity to transmit this amount of data between devices. These numbers will not be significantly
different for macroscopic inanimate objects. The information processing and transfer technology required
for the teleportation system may become possible in 200 – 300 years if improvements in computer storage
and speed maintains a factor of 10 – 100 increase for every decade. There is speculation that emergent
molecular, bio-molecular (DNA-based systems) and quantum computer technology may achieve the
performances required for a teleportation system. In the former case molecular dynamics mimics
computer logic processes and the ≈ 1025 particles in a macroscopic sample will all act simultaneously,
making for far greater digital information processing and transfer speeds. Researchers have given no
formal performance estimates for this emergent technology. In the latter case quantum computing would
take advantage of entangled quantum states of subatomic matter or photons, whereby digital logic
processes would occur at light speed. This technology is in its infancy, and there has been no clear
direction on what performance levels will be possible in the future. This topic will be discussed further in
Section 3.2.3.
In the above teleportation scenario we might consider dematerializing animate/inanimate objects into
a matter stream consisting of only the object’s constituent atoms or atomic subcomponents (protons,
neutrons and electrons) and transmitting them at the speed of light (or close to it). To push atoms or
subatomic particles to near the speed of light will require imparting to them an energy comparable to their
rest-mass energy, which will be at a minimum of one order of magnitude larger than the amount of energy
required to break protons up into free quarks. The energy required to completely dematerialize (or
dissolve) matter into its basic quantum constituents or into pure energy is alone stupendous. At first one
will have to impart to every molecule within the object an energy that is equivalent to the binding energy
between atoms (atomic binding energy ~ chemical energy ~ several eV) in order to break apart the
molecules comprising the object’s macro-structure. After this an energy equivalent to nuclear binding
energies (≈ several × 106
times atomic binding energy, or ≈ several MeV) must be imparted to every free
atomic nucleus inside the object in order to break apart the protons and neutrons residing within each
nucleus. And last, an energy equivalent to the binding energy that holds together the three quarks
residing within each proton and neutron must be imparted to each of the free protons and neutrons within
the object. According to the Standard Model and experimental data, the quark binding energy is
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practically infinite. But all is not lost, because the Standard Model also predicts that if we could heat up
the nuclei to ≈ 1013 °C (≈ 106
times hotter than the core temperature of the Sun, or ≈ 103
MeV), then the
quarks inside would suddenly lose their binding energies and become massless (along with other
elementary matter). This heat is also equivalent to the rest-mass energy of protons and neutrons.
Therefore, to heat up and dematerialize one human being would require the annihilation of the rest massenergy
of all 1028 protons-neutrons or the energy equivalent of 330 1-megaton thermonuclear bombs.
Compare this stupendous explosive energy with the explosive yield of the largest thermonuclear bomb
ever detonated on Earth, which was a 50-megaton bomb that was built by Andrei Sakharov in the USSR
and detonated on October 30, 1961; it was called “Tzar Bomba.” Its first incarnation (ca. early October
1961) comprised a uranium fusion tamper, which gave an estimated explosive yield of ≈ 100 megatons.
But the weapon was too heavy (27 metric tons) for a bomber to carry, so the tamper was replaced by one
made of lead, which reduced both the weight and the yield. In the end we see that it is not a trivial
problem to simply heat up and dematerialize any human or inanimate objects. The technology to do so
does not exist unless we invoke new physics to get around the energy requirement.
Finally, we must consider the resolution and aperture of the optics required to scan and transmit the
animate/inanimate object’s matter (or energy) stream. The Heisenberg quantum uncertainty principle
fundamentally constrains the measurement resolution of conjugate observable quantities, such as position
and momentum or energy and time. The measurement of any combination of (conjugate) observables
with arbitrarily high precision is not possible, because a high precision measurement of one observable
leads to imprecise knowledge of the value of the conjugate observable. The quantum uncertainty
principle makes it impossible to measure the exact, total quantum state of any object with certainty. The
scan resolution of a teleportation system is defined by the wavelength of light used to illuminate the
object’s atomic/subatomic constituents and record their configurations. To resolve matter at
atomic/subatomic distance scales requires that the energy of the scanner light (photons) be extremely
large (according to the uncertainty principle); and during the scan this large light energy will be conveyed
to the constituents, causing them to drastically change their speed and direction of motion. This means
that it is physically impossible to resolve an object’s atomic/subatomic particle components and their
configurations with the precision necessary to accurately encode and later recreate the object being
teleported. To resolve atomic/subatomic particles requires wavelengths smaller than the size of these
constituents, which will typically be 1 Å – 1 fm. Such wavelengths are in the gamma ray part of the
spectrum, and this becomes a major technical problem for us because at present there is no gamma ray
electro-optics with which to work with. Now consider the example of teleporting an object from the
surface of a planet back to its spacecraft in orbit some several × 102
– 103
km away. The optical aperture
required to illuminate and scan an object with ≈ 1 Å – 1 fm resolution from orbit will be >> several × 102
– 103
km. If we are to consider teleporting an object from planet to planet or from star to star then the
aperture required will be >> several × 108
– 1013 km. These technical problems are truly insurmountable
unless totally new physics becomes available.
3.2 Quantum Teleportation
It turns out that there does in fact exist a form of teleportation that occurs in nature despite the
numerous technical roadblocks described in the previous section. It is called quantum teleportation,
which is based on the well-known concept of quantum entanglement. Erwin Schrödinger coined the word
“entanglement” in 1935 in a three-part paper (Schrödinger, 1935a, b, c, 1980). These papers were
prompted by the Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen (1935; denoted hereafter as EPR) paper that raised
fundamental questions about quantum mechanics, whereby Einstein had loudly complained that quantum
mechanics allowed physical processes resembling “spooky action at a distance” to occur. EPR
recognized that quantum theory allows certain correlations to exist between two physically distant parts of
a quantum system. Such correlations make it possible to predict the result of a measurement on one part
of a system by looking at the distant part. On this basis, EPR argued that the distant predicted quantity
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should have a definite value even before being measured, if quantum theory is complete and respects
locality (a.k.a. causality). EPR concluded that, from a classical perspective, quantum theory must be
incomplete because it disallows such definite values prior to measurement. Schrödinger’s perspective on
this argument gives the modern view of quantum mechanics, which is to say that the wavefunction (a.k.a.
quantum state vector) provides all the information there is about a quantum system. In regards to the
nature of entangled quantum states, Schrödinger (1935a, b, c, 1980) stated that, “The whole is in a
definite state, the parts taken individually are not.” This statement defines the essence of pure-state
entanglement. Schrödinger went on to give a description of quantum entanglement by introducing his
famous cat experiment.
To better understand the concept of quantum entanglement/teleportation we will focus on the
quantum wavefunction (a.k.a. quantum state function). Any quantum system such as a particle that
possesses a position in space, energy, angular and linear momentum, and spin is completely described by
a wavefunction. This is usually symbolized in a variety of ways, and we choose to represent a generic
wavefunction using the traditional “bra-ket” notation of quantum mechanics: |ϕ〉. Anything that we want
to know about the particle is mathematically encoded within |ϕ〉. As we discussed in the previous section
the wavefunction can never be completely known because there is no measurement that can determine it
completely. The only exception to this is in the special case that the wavefunction has been prepared in
some particular state or some member of a known basis group of states in advance. By measuring one of
the properties of a quantum system, we can get a glimpse of the overall quantum state that is encoded
within |ϕ〉. According to the quantum uncertainty principle the act of doing such a measurement will
destroy any ability to subsequently determine the other properties of the quantum system. So the act of
measuring a particle actually destroys some of the information about its pristine state. This makes it
impossible to copy particles and reproduce them elsewhere via quantum teleportation. However, it turns
out that one can recreate an unmeasured quantum state in another particle as long as one is prepared to
sacrifice the original particle. The trick is to exploit the EPR process to circumvent the quantum
uncertainty principle.
As discussed previously, EPR discovered that a pair of spatially separated quantum sub-systems that
are parts of an overall quantum system can be “entangled” in a non-local (i.e., non-causal) way. When
two particles come into contact with one another, they can become “entangled.” In an entangled state,
both particles remain part of the same quantum system so that whatever you do to one of them affects the
other one in a predictable fashion. More precisely, a measurement on one of the entangled sub-systems
puts it into a particular quantum state, while instantaneously putting the sub-system with which it is
entangled into a corresponding quantum state, while the two sub-systems are separated by arbitrarily large
distances in spacetime (even backwards in time!). A simple example of this phenomenon is to prepare a
pair of photons in the same quantum state such that they are entangled, and then allow them to fly apart to
remote locations without any form of communication occurring between them along their journey.
Measuring the polarization of one of the pair of entangled photons induces the other photon, which may
be light-years away, into the same state of polarization as that which was measured for its entangled twin.
The basic operation of quantum teleportation can be described as determining the total quantum state of
some large quantum system, transmitting this state information from one place to another, and making a
perfect reconstruction of the system at the new location. In principle, entangled particles can serve as
“transporters” of sorts. By introducing a third “message” particle to one of the entangled particles, one
could transfer its properties to the other one, without ever measuring those properties.
Historically, quantum entanglement was never reconciled with the quantum uncertainty principle and
the requirement of locality (or causality) in observed physical phenomena, thus it became a paradox in
quantum theory. A three-decade debate began following the appearance of the EPR paper over whether
quantum entanglement (a.k.a. “spooky action at a distance”) was a real quantum phenomenon or not, and
this debate came to be called the “EPR dilemma.” Einstein’s only solution to the dilemma was to suggest
that quantum mechanics was incomplete and needed a reformulation to incorporate local hidden-variables
that can account for observed physical phenomena without violating causality. Bell (1964) later solved
the EPR dilemma by deriving correlation inequalities that can be violated in quantum mechanics but have
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to be satisfied within every model that is local and complete. Such models are called “local hiddenvariable
models.” Bell showed that a pair of entangled particles, which were once in contact but later
moved too far apart to interact directly (i.e., causally), can exhibit individually random behavior that is
too strongly correlated to be explained by classical statistics. Bell’s inequalities make it possible to test
whether local hidden-variable models can account for observed physical phenomena in lab experiments.
Groundbreaking experimental work by Aspect et al. (1982a, b) along with further theoretical and
experimental work done by others (Freedman and Clauser, 1972; Aspect, 1983; Aspect and Grangier,
1985; Hong and Mandel, 1985; Bennett and Wiesner, 1992; Tittel et al., 1998a, b; Tittel and Weihs, 2001)
demonstrated violations of the Bell inequalities, which therefore invalidated the local hidden-variable
models. The key result of recent theoretical and experimental work is that an observed violation of a Bell
inequality demonstrates the presence of entanglement in a quantum system.
3.2.1 Description of the q-Teleportation Process
The experimental work of Bennett et al. (1993) followed by the theoretical and experimental work of
others (Vaidman, 1994; Kwiat et al., 1995; Braunstein, 1996; Braunstein and Kimble, 1998; Pan et al.,
1998; Stenholm and Bardroff, 1998; Zubairy, 1998; Vaidman and Yoran, 1999; Kwiat et al., 1999) made
the breakthrough that was necessary to demonstrate the principle of quantum teleportation in practice. It
was a remarkable technical breakthrough that settled, once and for all, the nagging question of whether
quantum entanglement could be used to implement a teleportation process to transfer information
between remotely distant quantum systems non-causally (i.e., at FTL speed). It is easy to describe how
quantum teleportation works in greater detail. Figure 6 compares conventional facsimile transmission
with the quantum teleportation process seen in Figure 7. In a conventional facsimile transmission the
original document is scanned, extracting partial information about it, but it remains more or less intact
after the scanning process. The scanned information is then sent to the receiving station, where it is
imprinted on new paper to produce an approximate copy of the original. In quantum teleportation (Figure
7) one scans out part of the information from object A (the original), which one wants to teleport, while
causing the remaining, unscanned, part of the information in A to pass, via EPR entanglement, into
another object C which has never been in contact with A. Two objects B and C are prepared and brought
into contact (i.e., entangled), and then separated. Object B is taken to the sending station, while object C
is taken to the receiving station. At the sending station object B is scanned together with the original
object A, yielding some information and totally disrupting the states of A and B. This scanned
information is sent to the receiving station, where it is used to select one of several treatments to be
applied to object C, thereby putting C into an exact replica of the former state of A. Object A itself is no
longer in its original initial state, having been completely disrupted by the scanning process. The process
just described is teleportation and not replication, and one should not confuse the two. There is a subtle,
unscannable kind of information that, unlike ordinary information or material, can be delivered via EPR
correlations/entanglement, such that it cannot by itself deliver a meaningful and controllable message.
But quantum teleportation delivers exactly that part of the information in an object that is too delicate to
be scanned out and delivered by conventional methods.
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Figure 6. Classical Facsimile Transmission (Modified IBM Press Image)
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Figure 7. Quantum Teleportation (Modified IBM Press Image)
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We now go one more final step to give a simplified outline of the actual teleportation process
according to Bennett et al. (1993). They propose a multistep procedure by which any quantum state |χ〉 of
a particle or a photon (that correspond to an N-state system) is to be teleported from one location to
another. For example, |χ〉 might be a two-level system that could refer to the polarization of a single
photon, the nuclear magnetic spin of a hydrogen atom, or the electronic excitation of an effective twolevel
atom. The following scenario outlines the q-Teleportation process in a very simplified way:
1. Prepare a pair of quantum subsystems |ϕ〉 and |ψ〉 in an EPR entangled state so that they are
linked together. |ϕ〉 and |ψ〉 are maximally entangled and together constitute a definite pure state
superposition even though each of them is maximally undetermined or mixed when considered
separately.
2. Transport |ϕ〉 to the location of the teleportation transmitter and transport |ψ〉 to the location of the
teleportation receiver. (In the technical literature the transmitter is called “Alice” and the receiver
is called “Bob.”) The transmitter and receiver can be many light years apart in space. Note that
the two subsystems are non-causally correlated via entanglement, but they contain no information
about |χ〉 at this point. The two subsystems represent an open quantum channel that is ready to
transmit information.
3. Now Alice brings the teleported state |χ〉 into contact with the entangled state |ϕ〉 and performs a
quantum measurement on the combined system |χ〉|ϕ〉. Bob and Alice have previously agreed
upon the details of the quantum measurement.
4. Using a conventional classical communication channel, Alice transmits to Bob a complete
description of the outcome of the quantum measurement she performed on |χ〉|ϕ〉.
5. Bob then subjects |ψ〉 to a set of linear transformations (i.e., suitable unitary rotations) that are
dictated by the outcome of Alice’s quantum measurement. The quantum subsystem Bob
originally first received is no longer in state |ψ〉 after the linear transformations because it is now
in a state identical to the original state |χ〉. Therefore, |χ〉 has in effect been teleported from Alice
to Bob.
Bennett et al. (1993) showed in their experimental work that this scheme requires both a conventional
communication channel and a non-causal EPR channel to send the state |χ〉 from one location to another.
In addition to this, a considerable pre-arrangement of entangled states and quantum measurement
procedures is required to make the process work. Bennett et al. (1993) analyzed the information flow
implicit in the process and showed that Alice’s measurement does not provide any information about the
quantum state |χ〉. All of the quantum state information is passed by the EPR link between the entangled
particle states |ϕ〉 and |ψ〉. We can think of the measurement results as providing the “code key” that
permits the EPR information to be decoded properly at Bob’s end. And because the measurement
information must travel on a conventional communications channel, the decoding cannot take place until
the code key arrives, insuring that no FTL teleportation is possible.
The q-Teleportation scheme teleports the state of a quantum system without having to completely
measure its initial state. The outcome of the process is that the initial quantum state |χ〉 is destroyed at
Alice’s location and recreated at Bob’s location. It is very important for the reader to understand that it is
the quantum states of the particles/photons that are destroyed and recreated in the teleportation process,
and not the particles/photons themselves. The quantum state or wavefunction contains the information on
the state of a particle, but is not a directly observable physical quantity like mass-energy. The quantum
information contained within a state is available in the form of probabilities or expectation values.
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Therefore, q-Teleportation cannot teleport animate or inanimate matter (or energy) in its physical entirety.
However, some experts argue that because a particle’s or a photon’s quantum state is its defining
characteristic, teleporting its quantum state is completely equivalent to teleporting the particle/photon
even though the original particle’s/photon’s quantum state (and defining characteristic) was completely
destroyed in the process (more on this in Section 3.3). Therefore, no quantum cloning is possible and we
are left with a (near-perfect) copy of the now-destroyed original after teleportation (Wootters and Zurek,
1982; Barnum et al., 1996). And finally, classical information itself cannot be teleported faster than the
speed of light via the non-causal EPR channel; however, quantum information can (more on this in
Section 3.2.3).
3.2.2 Decoherence Fundamentally Limits q-Teleportation
Finally, the reader must understand that the q-Teleportation scenario described in the previous section
was simplified because we unrealistically assumed that Alice and Bob shared an EPR entangled pair that
was free of noise or decoherence. Decoherence is the process, whereby an object’s quantum states
degrade when information leaks to or from the environment (i.e., environmental noise) through stray
interactions with the object. In reality, Alice and Bob have quantum systems that interact directly or
through another mediating quantum system like two ions in an ion trap that interact through phonon
modes of the trap, or Rydberg atoms in a laser cavity that interact via photons (Sackett, 2001; Raimond et
al., 2001). Decoherence degrades the fidelity of the quantum link (i.e., the set of pure EPR entangled
pairs) between two quantum systems, thus introducing a certain level of error in the exchange of quantum
information between the systems.
In a real-world example of an application of q-Teleportation to quantum computation (discussed in
the next section), we can devise an array of interconnected ion traps with each trap holding a small
number of ions that are coupled by ions that are moved between the traps or by traveling photons
(Wineland et al., 2002). The quantum link (or EPR interaction) between a pair of systems is subject to
noise or decoherence through photon loss or heating of the phonons. At present, decoherence imposes a
fundamental limit on our ability to perform quantum information processing. Research is continuing on
whether decoherence can be reduced, circumvented, or otherwise be (partially or totally) eliminated. Dür
and Briegel (2003) have taken the first step towards this goal at rudimentary level by showing that faulttolerant
quantum computation can be achieved in the presence of very high noise levels occurring in the
interaction link between small quantum systems, if one assumes that local quantum processing on each
end is nearly error free. They showed that the interaction link can have an error rate of two-thirds.
3.2.3 Recent Developments in Entanglement and q-Teleportation Physics
Quantum teleportation physics is still in its infancy. Both theoretical and experimental developments
are advancing in many different directions, but are far from maturity at this point in time because the field
is still evolving at present. Technical applications of entanglement and q-Teleportation are just becoming
conceptualized for the first time, while a small number of basic physics breakthroughs and their related
applications are in experimental progress at present. The research community is still in the process of
discovering the full nature of entanglement and q-Teleportation, its rules, and what roadblocks nature has
in store for its applications and further progression. The literature cited in this study is by no means
complete, and only represents a subset of the entire field, because the research is still evolving.
An important application of quantum entanglement and q-Teleportation was the discovery made by
Shor (1994, 1997) that computation with quantum states instead of classical bits can result in large
savings in computation time. For example, the best algorithms take exponentially more resources to
factor ever-larger numbers on a classical computer. A 500-digit number needs 108
times as many
computational steps to factor as a 250-digit number. The latter classically requires ≈ 5×1024
computational steps, or about 150,000 years computing time at terahertz speed, to factor. Shor found a
polynomial-time quantum algorithm that solves the problem of finding prime factors of a large integer.
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He showed that his algorithm rises only polynomially so that a 500-digit number takes only eight times as
many computational steps to factor as a 250-digit number. And by using the quantum factoring
algorithm, a 250-digit number requires only ≈ 5×1010 steps or < 1 second to factor at terahertz speed, so
that a 500-digit number will take ≤ 1 second to factor. No classical polynomial-time algorithm for this
problem exists at present. This breakthrough generated a cottage industry of research into quantum
computing and quantum information theory.
IBM (2001) constructed a prototype quantum computer that uses the nuclear spins of seven atoms that
are part of a large molecule with the iron-based chemical composition H5C11O2F5Fe. The computer uses
entangled nuclear spins for storage and has a capacity of seven qubits (qubits are defined in the bulleted
list in the next two paragraphs below). All of the Fluorine atoms in the large molecule are Fluorine
isotope 19 and two of the Carbon atoms are Carbon isotope 13. All the other non-hydrogen atoms have
even isotope numbers and no nuclear spins. The objective of the prototype quantum computer was to
factor the number 15 into its two prime factors 3 and 5 by using Shor’s quantum factoring algorithm. The
quantum computation required that a sample of ≈ 1018 of the large molecules be placed in a magnetic field
and manipulated by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. This mechanism allows the spins to
function as qubits, whereby Schor’s algorithm can be performed via manipulation of the NMR fields.
NMR was used to implement quantum computing in this prototype, because the nuclear spins are well
isolated from decoherence as a result of the very long decoherence time (the time after which quantum
coherence is lost due to environmental noise) in the system.
To factor larger numbers will require a system that uses more than seven qubits. It is estimated that a
quantum computer using ≈ 36 qubits could very quickly perform computations that would require a
conventional computer ≈ 13 billion years to perform. And such a computer could solve one of the
technical problems of human teleportation discussed in Section 3.1. However, a scale-up in the number
of qubits is difficult because the IBM prototype has reached the technology limit of NMR quantum
computing. The prototype’s operation requires that all of the qubits must be in the same molecule. And
molecules with more than seven spins that can be used as qubits are not feasible at present. However,
there are alternative technologies for quantum computing that show promise for scaling up the number of
qubits. The technologies of nuclear spin orientation of single atom impurities in semiconductors, electron
spin orientation in quantum dots, and the manipulation of magnetic flux quanta in superconductors all
show promise of providing a basis for scalable quantum computers. Finally, the primary technical
problem in quantum computing at the present time is decoherence, and this must be eliminated or
otherwise mitigated before new quantum technology can become competitive with conventional computer
technology.
A byproduct of the recent quantum computing and information research is that a modern theory of
entanglement has emerged. Researchers now treat entanglement as a quantifiable physical resource that
enables quantum information processing and computation. Entanglement is no longer treated as a
paradox of quantum theory. It has been recently discovered that (Nielsen and Chuang, 2000; Nielsen,
2003; Terhal et al., 2003):
• various kinds of pure and mixed entangled states may be prepared in addition to the simple purestate
superpositions that was described in the previous section
• the members of an entangled group of objects do not have their own individual quantum states,
only the group as a whole has a well-defined state (i.e., “the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts”)
• entangled objects behave as if they were physically connected together no matter how far apart
they actually are, distance does not attenuate entanglement in the slightest – it has been
demonstrated that information can be teleported over 40 km using existing technology (H.
Everitt, Army Research Office, 2000)
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• if something is entangled with other objects, then a measurement of it simultaneously provides
information about its partners
• some quantum systems can have a little entanglement while others will have a lot
• the more entanglement available, the better suited a system is to quantum information processing
• decoherence degrades the fidelity of the quantum link (i.e., the set of pure EPR entangled pairs)
between two quantum systems, thus introducing a certain level of error in the exchange of
quantum information between the systems; thus limiting our ability to perform quantum
information processing (see more on this issue in the next paragraph below)
• mixed entangled states may be measured, distilled, concentrated, diluted, and manipulated
• the basic resource of classical information is the bit (i.e., the two values 0 and 1), while quantum
information comes in quantum bits (i.e., qubits) that are described by their quantum state; qubits
can exist in superpositions that simultaneously involve 0 and 1, thus giving them an infinite range
of values; groups of qubits can be entangled; qubits must be insulated against decoherence, so
that the coherent state of the quantum system in a quantum computer is preserved for a time that
is long enough to set up a calculation, perform it, and read out the results
• quantum computers processing qubits or entangled qubits can outperform classical computers;
functional requirements of quantum computers:
™ they must have the ability to initialize any qubit in a specified state, and to measure the
state of a specific qubit
™ they must have universal quantum gates, which are logical elements capable of arranging
any desired logical relationship between the states of qubits
™ they must also have a processor capable of interlinking quantum gates to establish rules
and boundary conditions for their inter-relationships – in a quantum computation, the
arrangement of quantum gates connects the qubits in a logical pattern, according to a
program or algorithm, and after an interval the qubits assigned to the result are read out
• quantum error correction codes exist, whereby qubits are passed through a circuit (the quantum
analogue of logic gates) that will successfully fix an error in any one of the qubits without
actually reading what all the individual qubit states are; no qubit cloning is required
• a completely secure quantum key can be generated and distributed (for communication and
decoding of encrypted messages) using entangled photons has been demonstrated (Tittel et al.,
2000; Jennewein et al., 2000; Naik et al., 2000); any eavesdropper’s attempt to intercept the
quantum key will alter the contents in a detectable way, enabling users to discard the
compromised parts of the data
• in an experiment which verified that EPR entanglement obeys Special Relativity (Seife, 2000;
Scarani et al., 2000; Gisin et al., 2000; Zbinden et al., 2000a, b), and involving a photon detector
moving at relativistic speeds (for example, Bob moves away from Alice at close to the speed of
light), investigators determined that quantum information via EPR photon pair entanglement must
travel > 107
times light speed (the photon detectors were 10.6 km apart)
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• investigators are still developing quantitative laws of entanglement to provide a set of principles
for understanding the behavior of entanglement and how it is used to do information processing
• investigators are working to develop an understanding of the general principles that govern
complex quantum systems such as quantum computers
Other developments are equally as interesting or compelling. For example, the quantum state of the
object we wish to teleport does not have to describe single microscopic systems like photons, ions, atoms
or electrons. Quantum states can describe large collections of atoms like chemical compounds, humans,
planets, stars, and galaxies. Hartle and Hawking (1983) even derived the quantum wavefunction of the
Universe in closed form, although, it was extremely simplified and excluded the presence of quantum
matter-energy. So it has become possible to consider teleporting large quantum systems. We summarize
the more recent spectacular developments in the following:
• Generation of entanglement and teleportation by Parametric Down-Conversion (Bouwmeester et
al., 1997; Zeilinger, 2003): EPR entangled photon pairs are created when a laser beam passes
through a nonlinear β-barium borate or BBO crystal. Inside the crystal (BBO, for example) an
ultraviolet photon (λ = 490 nm) may spontaneously split into two lower energy infrared photons
(λ = 780 nm), which is called parametric down-conversion. The two “down-conversion” photons
emerge as independent beams with orthogonal polarizations (horizontal or vertical). (The
orthogonal polarization states represent a classic example of the discrete quantum state variables
that can be teleported. Other examples of discrete quantum variables that have been teleported
using other schemes include the nuclear magnetic spin of a hydrogen atom, electronic excitations
of an effective two-level atom, elementary particle spins, etc.) In the two beams along the
intersections of their emission cones, we observe a polarization-entangled two-photon state. For
the experimental realization of quantum teleportation, it is necessary to use pulsed downconversion.
Only if the pulse width of the UV light, and thus the time of generating photon pairs
is shorter than the coherence time of the down-converted photons, then interferometric Bell-state
analysis can be performed. In this type of experiment, the pulses from a mode-locked Ti:Saphire
laser have been frequency doubled to give pulses of ≈ 200 fs duration (1 fs = 10−15 second). The
interfering light is observed after passage through IR filters of 4 nm bandwidth giving a
coherence time of ≈ 520 fs. After retroflection during its second passage through the crystal, the
UV pulse creates another pair of photons. One of these will be the teleported photon, which can
be prepared to have any polarization. Beam splitters and photon detectors are used to perform the
Bell-state analysis during the standard teleportation process that ensues. See Figure 8 for a
schematic showing the layout of a standard parametric down-conversion entanglementteleportation
experiment.
• Teleportation of squeezed states of light and continuous quantum state variables (Furusawa et al.,
1998; Sørensen, 1998; Braunstein and Kimble, 1998; Opatrný et al., 2000; Braunstein et al.,
2001; Zhang et al., 2002; Bowen et al., 2002; Bowen et al., 2003; Zeilinger, 2003): Squeezed
light (see Section A.2 in Appendix A) is used to generate the EPR entangled beams, which are
sent to Alice and Bob. A third beam, the input, is a coherent state of unknown complex
amplitude. This state is teleported to Bob with a high fidelity only achievable via the use of
quantum entanglement. Entangled EPR beams are generated by combining two beams of
squeezed light at a 50/50 beam splitter. EPR beam 1 propagates to Alice’s sending station, where
it is combined at a 50/50 beam splitter with the unknown input state, in this case a coherent state
of unknown complex amplitude. Alice uses two sets of balanced homodyne detectors to make a
Bell-state measurement on the amplitudes of the combined state. Because of the entanglement
between the EPR beams, Alice’s detection collapses Bob’s field (EPR beam 2) into a state
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42
conditioned on Alice’s measurement outcome. After receiving the classical result from Alice,
Bob is able to construct the teleported state via a simple phase-space displacement of the EPR
field 2. Quantum teleportation in this scheme is theoretically perfect, yielding an output state
which equals the input with a fidelity F = 1. In practice, fidelities less than one are realized due
to imperfections in the EPR pair, Alice’s Bell measurement, and Bob’s unitary transformation.
By contrast, a sender and receiver who share only a classical communication channel cannot hope
to transfer an arbitrary quantum state with a fidelity of one. For coherent states, the classical
teleportation limit is F = 0.5, while for light polarization states it is F = 0.67. The quantum nature
of the teleportation achieved in this case is demonstrated by the experimentally determined
fidelity of F = 0.58, greater than the classical limit of 0.5 for coherent states. The fidelity is an
average over all input states and so measures the ability to transfer an arbitrary, unknown
superposition from Alice to Bob. This technique achieves the teleportation of continuous
quantum state variables, as opposed to the discrete quantum state variables used in the Bennett et
al. (1993) teleportation protocol and its variants. The teleportation of a squeezed state of light
from one beam of light to another demonstrates the teleportation of a continuous feature (of light)
that comes from the superpositions of an infinite number of basic states of the electromagnetic
field, such as those found in squeezed states. This line of research also involves the experimental
demonstration of the mapping of quantum states from photonic to atomic media via entanglement
and teleportation. Hald et al. (1999) reported on the experimental observation of a spin-squeezed
macroscopic ensemble of 107
cold atoms, whereby the ensemble is generated via quantum state
entanglement/teleportation from non-classical light to atoms.
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43
Figure 8. Quantum Teleportation (From www.aip.org)
At the sending station of the quantum teleporter, Alice encodes a “messenger” photon (M) with a specific
state: 45 degrees polarization. This travels towards a beam splitter. Meanwhile, two additional entangled
photons (A and B) are created. The polarization of each photon is in a fuzzy, undetermined state, yet the
two photons have a precisely defined interrelationship. Specifically, they must have complementary
polarizations. For example, if photon A is later measured to have horizontal (0 degrees) polarization, then
the other photon must collapse into the complementary state of vertical (90 degrees) polarization.
Entangled photon A arrives at the beam splitter at the same time as the message photon M. The beam
splitter causes each photon to either continue toward detector 1 or change course and travel to detector 2.
In 25% of all cases, in which the two photons go off into different detectors, Alice does not know which
photon went to which detector. This inability for Alice to distinguish between the two photons causes
quantum weirdness to kick in. Just by the very fact that the two photons are now indistinguishable, the M
photon loses its original identity and becomes entangled with A. The polarization value for each photon
is now indeterminate, but since they travel toward different detectors Alice knows that the two photons
must have complementary polarizations. Since message photon M must have complementary
polarization to photon A, then the other entangled photon (B) must now attain the same polarization value
as M. Therefore, teleportation is successful. Indeed, Bob sees that the polarization value of photon B is
45 degrees: the initial value of the message photon.
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• Entanglement of Atoms (Hagley et al., 1997; Sackett et al., 2000): EPR entanglement at the level
of atoms has been experimentally demonstrated using rubidium atoms prepared in circular
Rydberg states (i.e., the outer electrons of the atom have been excited to very high energy states
and are far from the nucleus in circular orbits). The experimental apparatus produces two
entangled atoms, one atom in a ground state and the other atom in an excited state, physically
separated so that the entanglement is non-local. And when a measurement is made on one atom,
let us say the atom in a ground state, then the other atom instantaneously presents itself in the
excited state – the result of the second atom wave function collapse, thus determined by the result
of the first atom wave function collapse. This work is now evolving towards the demonstration
of entanglement for molecules and larger entities followed by teleportation of their states. Bose
and Home (2002) have improved on this concept by proposing a single, simple generic method by
which any atoms, ions and macroscopic objects can be entangled and teleported.
• Teleportation of an Atomic State via Cavity Decay (Bose et al., 1999; Sackett et al., 2000): It has
been shown how the state of an atom trapped in a cavity can be teleported to a second atom
trapped in a distant cavity simply by detecting photon decays from the cavities.
• Biological Quantum Teleportation (Mavromatos et al., 2002): There are several obstacles to
teleporting large complicated objects, especially biological entities. Decoherence is the primary
obstacle. That is because observable quantum effects in biological matter is thought to be
strongly suppressed due to the macroscopic nature of most biological entities and the fact that
such systems live at near room temperature, and there is always contact between biological
entities and the environment (the source of decoherence). These conditions result in very fast
collapse of pertinent quantum wavefunctions to one of the allowed classical states of the
biological entity. Mavromatos et al. (2002) propose a daring model that predicts dissipationless
energy transfer along shielded macromolecules at near room temperatures as well as quantum
teleportation of states across microtubules and perhaps neurons. It is proposed that under certain
circumstances it is in principle possible to obtain the necessary isolation against environmental
decoherence, so that meso/macroscopic quantum coherence, and entanglement extending over
scales that are larger than the atomic scale, may be achieved and maintained for times comparable
to the characteristic times for biological and cellular processes. Microtubules are comprised of
tubulin that is a common polar protein found in the cytoskeleton of eukariotic cells, which is
especially enriched in brain tissue. The model treats microtubules as quantum mechanically
isolated high-Q QED cavities, exhibiting properties analogous to those of electromagnetic
cavities routinely used in quantum optics. The model builds a microtubule network that achieves
quantum teleportation of coherent quantum states, leading to decoherence-resistant bulk quantum
information processing and computing within the biological matter. It is speculated that the
model can explain how consciousness works, and how the brain processes and computes
information.
• Teleportation of a laser beam with embedded radio signal (Bowen et al., 2003): The teleportation
of a laser beam from one part of a lab to another has been demonstrated. Investigators embedded
a radio signal into a laser beam, then disintegrated the beam and reassembled it a meter away,
virtually instantaneously. The laser beam was destroyed in the teleportation process, but the radio
signal survived. The laser light at one end of an optical communications system was
disassembled and its replica was recreated elsewhere in the lab. Even though the laser beam did
not survive teleportation, its encoded message did. This system could be used to transport secure
data, such that it could become possible to construct a perfect cryptography system. When two
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parties want to communicate with one another, one can enable the secrecy of the communication
to be absolutely perfect.
• Entanglement and Teleportation of a Macroscopic Ensemble of Atoms (Julsgaard et al., 2001):
Expanding upon the earlier work of Hald et al. (1999) and Sackett et al. (2000), investigators
experimentally demonstrated the entanglement of two macroscopic objects, each consisting of a
cesium gas sample containing ≈ 1012 atoms. Entanglement is generated via interaction of the
samples with a pulse of light, which performs a non-local Bell measurement on the collective
spins of the samples. The entangled spin-state can be maintained for 0.5 milliseconds. The
teleportation of macro-ensemble atom quantum states is expected to follow this experiment. This
work is evolving towards the experimental demonstration of the Bose and Home (2002) proposal,
which proved that there is a single generic process that can entangle and teleport any atoms, ions
and macroscopic objects.
• Entanglement/teleportation of internal state and external motion information of atoms (Opatrný
and Kurizki, 2001): Investigators propose an experiment for transmitting an atom’s full
information, including its “external” states, such as its energy of motion. This procedure
replicates the quantum features of the external motion of a particle. For example, if particle-tobe-teleported
C yielded a diffraction pattern after passing through two slits, then the same pattern
would be produced by particle B, which receives the teleported information. The researchers
propose the following idea: Dissociate a very cold molecule with a laser pulse into two atoms
(called A and B). Then manipulate the two atoms so that they become entangled: each one is in a
fuzzy state individually, but has a precisely defined relationship with its partner. Then let one of
the entangled particles (such as A) collide with particle C, whose unknown state should be
teleported. After their collision, the momentum values of the collision partners A and C are
measured. With that information, the researchers know how to “kick” and deflect atom B, so that
the motion of B precisely emulates that of particle C. The investigators say that state-of-the-art
equipment for studying atomic collisions and quantum effects makes this experiment difficult, but
feasible, to do. If this proposal proves to be correct, then the implication is that it will become
possible to experimentally expand this concept to the teleportation of a large ensemble of atoms,
such that the entire physical motion and quantum states of the ensemble can be teleported. This
could lead to the future development of a teleportation process similar to what was discussed in
Section 3.1.
• Laser-like Amplification of Entangled Particles and Entangled-Photon Lasers (Lamas-Linares et
al., 2001): Entangled particles are notoriously difficult to create in bulk. To create entangled
photons, for example, researchers use the parametric down-conversion technique to send laser
light through a barium borate crystal. Passing through the crystal, a photon sometimes splits into
two entangled photons (each with half the energy of the initial photon). However, this only
occurs for one in every ten billion incoming photons. To increase the yield, researchers added a
step: they put mirrors beyond the crystal so that the laser pulse and entangled pair could reflect,
and have the chance to interact. The entangled pair and reflected laser pulse interfere
constructively to generate fourfold more two-photon pairs or interfere destructively to create zero
pairs. Following these steps, the researchers increased production of two-photon entangled pairs,
and also of more rare states such as four-photon entangled quartets. This achievement could
represent a step towards an entangled-photon laser, which would repeatedly amplify entangled
particles to create greater yields than previously possible, and also towards the creation of new
and more complex kinds of entangled states.
This list is by no means complete as new developments in this field continue to arise.
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3.3 Conclusion and Recommendations
Given the incredible advancements that have been made in the entanglement and teleportation of
macroscopic objects the size of 1012 atoms, we are still very far away from being able to entangle and
teleport human beings (and even simpler biological entities such as cells, etc.) and bulk inanimate objects
(tools, technical equipment, pencils and pens, weapons platforms, communications devices, personal
hygiene supplies, etc.). There still remain four essential problems:
¾ One needs an entangled pair of such bulk objects.
¾ The bulk objects to be entangled and teleported must be in a pure quantum state (as in a
Bose-Einstein condensate, for example). And pure quantum states are very fragile.
¾ The bulk objects to be entangled and teleported must be extremely isolated from the
environment to prevent the onset of decoherence.
¾ The Bell-state measurement of animate or inanimate objects during
entanglement/teleportation will require extracting an amount of information (in bits) that
equals or exceeds the number of atoms contained within the object. This infers that the
computer storage and processing requirements to entangle and teleport a complete bulk object
will be astronomically huge (recall the discussion in Section 3.1).
It is difficult to imagine how we can achieve an extreme level of environmental isolation for an
object, let alone a living being that breathes air and radiates heat. Experiments with atoms and larger
objects must be done in a high vacuum to avoid collisions with molecules. Thermal radiation from the
walls of a teleportation apparatus would easily disturb a tiny amount of matter. At present, decoherence
imposes a fundamental limit on quantum entanglement and teleportation. Decoherence is the primary
reason why we do not routinely see any quantum effects in our everyday world. Research is continuing
on whether decoherence can be reduced, circumvented, or otherwise be eliminated. And some minor
progress has been made in that direction.
In q-Teleportation it is the quantum states of the objects that are destroyed and recreated, and not the
objects themselves. Therefore, q-Teleportation cannot teleport animate or inanimate matter (or energy) in
its physical entirety. However, some experts argue that because an object’s quantum state is its defining
characteristic, teleporting its quantum state is completely equivalent to teleporting the object, even though
the original object’s quantum state (and defining characteristic) was completely destroyed in the process.
This goes to the heart of what is meant by identity. When an object has all the right properties and
features, it will be the same object that one observes whether it was observed now or 24 hours ago.
Quantum physics reinforces the point that objects of the same type in the same quantum state are
indistinguishable from each other. One should, according to this quantum principle, be able to swap all
the atoms in a particular object with the same atoms from a mound of raw materials, and reproduce the
original object’s quantum states exactly with the end result that the new object is identical to the original.
Last, we do not know how to put a human being into a pure quantum state or what doing so would mean
for biological functioning (including brain function), but we do know how to put ≤ 1012 gas atoms/ions
and a beam of photons into a pure state in practice. Further research will be required to ascertain whether
microbiological and higher-level biological systems, in addition to bulk inanimate matter, can be put into
pure quantum states and entangled/teleported.
To perform a Bell-state measurement on (bulk) animate or inanimate objects, during the
entanglement/teleportation process, to extract and encode its information will require extracting an
amount of information (in bits) that equals or exceeds the number of atoms contained within the object.
An object containing a few grams of matter will require the extraction of > 1028 bits of data. A simple
virus of ≈ 107
atoms would require the extraction of ≥ 108
bits of information during the
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entanglement/teleportation process, whereas the extraction of a minimum of 1028 kilobytes will be
required to encode and store an entire human being. This is beyond the capability of present digital
electronic computer technology to store and process. It is difficult to see how far computer technology
will advance towards meeting this requirement.
It is difficult to fathom what will be in store for the teleportation of human beings given some
possible future technology. What about the effects of the q-Teleportation process on the human
consciousness, memories and dreams, and the spirit or soul? We know from quantum physics that “the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” So what happens to the fundamental characteristics of a
human being when he/she steps into the teleporter-transmitter, where their quantum states (i.e., their
complete identity) are destroyed during the quantum entanglement/teleportation process, and then their
copy is created at the teleporter-receiver an instant later? What will things be like during the
entanglement process? Will a teleported individual’s consciousness, memories and dreams, and
spirit/soul be successfully and accurately teleported or not? This is a major ethical and technical question
that will have to be addressed by future research.
•Recommendations:
¾ Broad-spectrum Quantum Computing Technology Development Program: At present, the
Quantum Information Science Program (QISP) is coordinated by the U.S. Army Research Office
with funding and support from the Army, the National Security Agency, DARPA, and the Office
of the Deputy Director of Defense for Research and Engineering. The Naval Research Lab and
the CIA are both involved in their own programs. The CIA vets new commercial development of
computer technology and computer information processing via its In-Q-Tel company (reference
44). This includes R&D on quantum entanglement and teleportation for computer, information
processing and secure communications. QISP was funded for $19 million in 1999. The program
involves 34 projects by researchers at 21 universities, three government laboratories and two
corporate laboratories. QISP goals include building a quantum computer, developing quantum
information processing, and further advances in quantum teleportation. The AFRL should join
QISP and provide partnership funding on the order of $1 million per year. An alternative to this
would be for AFRL to collaborate with In-Q-Tel and participate in its technology R&D venture
capital programs. This R&D investment would allow the Air Force to acquire very advanced
quantum physics and related technological applications that can support its mission. The R&D
investment benefits would include the development and implementation of quantum
computing/information processing and secured quantum communications technology, which can
significantly enhance the performance and security of Air Force computing and communication
systems infrastructure, and aerospace weapons systems.
¾ Quantum Cryptography: A dedicated research program should be implemented to develop a
mature quantum cryptography technology. Theoretical and experimental work is in progress
among a small number of select groups (QISP, In-Q-Tel, universities, etc.), but this field is not
advancing fast enough for practical applications to become available to meet increasing
adversarial threats against secured military and intelligence communications. The goal of
proposed quantum cryptography research is to bring the theoretical and experimental foundation
of quantum cryptography and secure quantum information processing to maturity, and to fully
develop and implement quantum entanglement/teleportation-based cryptography technology.
Recent experimental work has demonstrated that a completely secure quantum key can be
generated and distributed for the communication and decoding of encrypted messages using
entangled photons. Any eavesdropper’s attempt to intercept the quantum key will alter the
contents in a detectable way, enabling users to discard the compromised parts of the data. There
is much more work that needs to be done in this area. I recommend that the AFRL implement a
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$1 million/year program for five years in order to advance the state-of-art in quantum
cryptography technology.
¾ Quantum Decoherence: Decoherence is the primary reason why we do not routinely see any
quantum effects in our everyday world. And it imposes a fundamental limit on quantum
entanglement and teleportation via the interaction between entangled/teleported quantum systems
and their local environment. In order to advance quantum entanglement/teleportation physics and
develop applied technologies, it is necessary that a research program be implemented by the
AFRL to explore whether decoherence can be significantly reduced, circumvented, or otherwise
be eliminated. An insufficient number of small university groups have slowly made minor
progress in this direction. I recommend that a $500,000 - 750,000 per year R&D program be
conducted for five years to overcome this technical challenge.
¾ Pure Quantum States: In order to entangle and teleport quantum particles and bulk objects, they
both must be prepared in a pure quantum state. And pure quantum states are very fragile to
decoherence. A technical challenge for entanglement/teleportation physics is whether the
requirement for pure quantum states can be relaxed and how much decoherence will play a role in
this situation, what technical challenges will arise when increasing the size of
entangled/teleported matter to larger macroscopic scale (>> 1012 atoms), and whether matter of
mixed composition (such as a gas or Bose-Einstein condensate of mixed atomic elements) can be
entangled/teleported in both pure and mixed quantum states. I recommend that a $250,000 –
500,000 per year research program be conducted for five years to study this problem.
¾ Entangling Bulk Matter and Bell-State Measurement to Extract Information: Recent experiments
demonstrated the entanglement of two macroscopic objects, each consisting of a cesium gas
sample containing ≈ 1012 atoms. Entanglement was generated via interaction of the samples with
a pulse of light, which performs a non-local Bell measurement on the collective spins of the
samples. In order to push the envelope on this development and take it to higher practical levels,
it will be necessary to ascertain the limit on the size and composition of bulk matter entanglement
(given the decoherence and pure-state constraints); and to determine what other quantum states
can be used for entanglement, what other Bell-state measurement techniques can be used, and
whether multiple quantum states can be entangled. The chief technical challenge is the computer
technology that will be required to facilitate the huge amount of data that must be extracted,
processed and stored from bulk matter quantum states during the Bell-state measurement process.
I recommend that a $500,000 – 1 million per year research program be implemented for five
years in order to explore these questions and ascertain what solutions may be technically
available, and to develop such solutions.
¾ Biological Quantum Teleportation: The Mavromatos et al. (2002) theoretical model for biological
entanglement and teleportation is a remarkable concept that could result in the development of a
workable physics theory of consciousness. The model has potential applications to advanced
quantum computing/information processing physics and the physics of psi phenomena (see
Chapter 5). A research program should be implemented to continue the Mavromatos et al. (2002)
work and bring their model to theoretical maturity. It is recommended that this program be
funded at $500,000 – 800,000 per year for five years. A parallel or follow-up program should be
implemented to experimentally test this model and ascertain any useful technological
applications. One application that should be explored in the proposed research program is
advanced, ultra-fast, ultra-high-capacity quantum computing and information processing using
natural and/or artificial biological systems. The parallel or follow-up experimental research
program should be funded at $800,000 – 1.5 million per year for five years.
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• FTL Communication: Experiments verifying that EPR entanglement obeys Special Relativity
(Seife, 2000; Scarani et al., 2000; Gisin et al., 2000; Zbinden et al., 2000a, b) determined that
quantum information via EPR photon pair entanglement must travel > 107
times light speed. Can
this mechanism be exploited to achieve FTL communication? If so, then the potential military
and commercial applications will be revolutionary, and the science and industry of
communications will be forever transformed. A comprehensive theoretical and experimental
research program should be implemented to answer this question. It is recommended that this
program be funded at $700,000 – 1 million per year for five years. A modest experiment
definition study should be funded at $80,000 for one year to delineate the most promising
experimental approaches to be used for the larger research program. [There is much controversy
and debate over FTL (a.k.a. superluminal) signals/communication, and the reader should see the
selected superluminal references in the Teleportation References section of this study.]
¾ New Entanglement/Teleportation Breakthroughs: The most exciting developments in quantum
teleportation physics has included the teleportation of a laser beam with an embedded radio
signal, the teleportation of squeezed states of light (and hence, continuous quantum state
variables), the teleportation of photon states to atoms/ions (from light to matter!), the
entanglement of two similar/dissimilar quantum particles that are created by two (independently)
different particle sources, the laser-like amplification of entangled particle/photon pairs,
parametric down-conversion entanglement and teleportation (of discrete quantum state variables),
quantum cryptography with unbreakable keys, the teleportation of quantum information at speeds
> 107
times light speed, the entanglement and teleportation of macroscopic (1012 atoms) matter
quantum states, etc. There is also the yet-untested proposal to entangle/teleport the external
physical motion and internal quantum state information of atoms. This shows that quantum
physics sets no apparent limit on what it is that can be teleported/entangled and how it is to be
teleported/entangled, or where it is to be teleported/entangled. At present teleportation
technology requires fiber optic and coaxial cables to teleport quantum state information from one
location to another. Can we avoid the use of cables and teleport through free space? [Note:
Before this report went to press, Aspelmeyer et al. (2003) reported their outdoor experiment that
demonstrated the distribution of quantum entanglement (of laser photons) via optical free-space
links to independent receivers separated by 600 m across the Danube River (during inclement
nighttime weather), with no line of sight between them. This experiment is revolutionary and
begins the step toward conducting satellite-based distributed quantum entanglement.] We have
not discovered all the possibilities that nature has in store for us. The present breakthrough
discoveries will likely introduce novel military and intelligence technology applications in the
near and far future. But further R&D must be conducted in order to discover new applications for
these recent breakthroughs, to make additional breakthroughs and discoveries, and to advance the
state-of-art in quantum teleportation physics to meet future challenges to the Air Force mission. I
recommend that a two-track R&D program be implemented over five years. The first track
should be funded at $250,000 – 750,000 per year for the purpose of developing new
entanglement/teleportation breakthroughs in quantum teleportation physics. The second track
should be funded at $750,000 – 1.5 million per year for the purpose of developing applications
for any new breakthroughs with the proviso that such applications benefit the Air Force mission
and have commercial dual-use capability to leverage advance technology in the private sector.
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4.0 e-TELEPORTATION
4.1 Extra Space Dimensions and Parallel Universes/Spaces
A literature search for proposed e-Teleportation concepts based on the conveyance of objects through
extra space dimensions and/or parallel universes/spaces has yielded only one result (see Section 4.2). The
present state-of-art in research on parallel universes/spaces and extra space dimensions has been strictly
limited to the work on developing a grand unified quantum field theory and a quantum theory of gravity,
whereby the former necessarily includes the latter. Quantum gravity/unified field theory research has
been evolving since the 1920s when Kaluza and Klein published the first papers to describe a model for
the unification of gravity with electrodynamics. Many of the more prominent theories today invoke extra
spatial dimensions, the existence of parallel universes/spaces, or both in order to quantise gravity and/or
to unify gravity with the other forces of nature. It is beyond the scope of this study to provide an in-depth
review of all of the research that has been done in this area, so we list below a select few of the
historically prominent models that have largely gained a secure foothold in present-day research:
¾ Kaluza-Klein Electromagnetic-Gravity Unification Theory/Modern Kaluza-Klein Gravity
Theories (Kaluza, 1921; Klein, 1926; de Sabbata and Schmutzer, 1983; Lee, 1984; Appelquist et
al., 1987; Kaku, 1993, 1994; Overduin and Wesson, 1998): It was originally suggested that
Maxwellian electrodynamics and Einstein gravitation could be unified in a theory of fivedimensional
Riemannian geometry, where the gravitational and electromagnetic potentials
together would determine the structure of spacetime. The fifth space dimension is curled up into
a ball of space with a radius slightly larger than 10−35 m, and it was originally regarded as having
no physical significance because it was simply a mathematical tool used to catalyze unification.
At present, the generic name of Kaluza-Klein stands for a wide variety of approaches to
quantising and unifying gravitation with other quantum fields using any number of dimensions
greater than four.
¾ Superstring Theories (Green, 1985; Kaku, 1988, 1993, 1994): These theories come in a wide
variety of interrelated concepts, and they are a highly evolved form of Kaluza-Klein theories.
They are based on the dynamics of string-like fundamental quanta, whereby the observed
fundamental particles are manifested by the vibrational ground or excitation states of a quantum
string (open or closed loop). The superstrings are ≈ 10−35 m (i.e., the Planck length) in size.
There are different versions of these theories that require ten, eleven or twenty-six extra space
dimensions to unify and quantise gravity, whereby the extra dimensions are curled up (i.e.,
compactified) into balls of space with a radius < 10−35 m. These theories later evolved into
versions that are now called F- and M-theory. The mathematics behind this class of theories is
very ugly, and it is difficult for even the best superstring theorists to make simple or sophisticated
calculations and predictions. And so far, this class of quantum gravity theories has escaped
experimental verification.
¾ D-Brane and 3-Brane Theories/Parallel Spaces (Rubakov and Shaposhnikov, 1983a, b;
Polchinski, 1995; Antoniadis et al., 1998; Randall and Sundrum, 1999a, b; Weiss, 2000; Pease,
2001; Arkani-Hamed et al., 1998, 2000, 2002): D-brane theory is a recent incarnation of the
original superstring theories in which open strings, corresponding to the fundamental particles of
the standard model (quarks, leptons, gauge bosons), have their free ends stuck on a (hypersurface)
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membrane called a D-brane (D = Dirichlet boundary conditions). But the graviton, which
corresponds to a closed loop of string, can propagate in all the dimensions. It provides both
unification and quantization of gravity by assuming that there are n new spatial dimensions in
addition to the three infinite spatial dimensions we know about. And the extra space dimensions
are ≈ 10−35 m in extent. A very recent alternative version of this model is called “3-brane” theory.
In this theory, each of the n extra space dimensions is of finite extent R ≈ 2×10(32/n)–17 centimeters.
The space spanned by the new dimensions is called “the bulk.” In this theory, the particles of the
standard model live within our familiar realm of three spatial dimensions, which forms a threedimensional
(hypersurface) membrane or “3-brane” within the bulk. The propagation of
electroweak and strong nuclear forces is then confined to our 3-brane. However, at distances (r)
less than R, gravity (via gravitons) propagates in the full (3 + n)-dimensional space, whereby its
strength falls as r
−(2+n)
with increasing separation r. When r > R, the gravitational force reverts to
its normal Newtonian r
−2
falloff because there is no longer any extra-dimensional space for it to
spread into. If n = 1, then the size of the extra-dimension would have to be R ≈ 2×1015 cm (or
2×1010 km = 133.3 AU; 1 AU = 1.5×108
km is the mean Earth-Sun distance) in order to account
for the weakness of gravity, but an extra space dimension this large would have already made
itself obvious in the observed dynamics of the solar system. For this reason, investigators have
discounted the possibility that n = 1. If n = 2, then the size of both extra space dimensions would
have to be R ≈ 0.2 cm (or 2 mm). In any case, inconspicuous neighboring 3-branes may be
separated from the 3-brane we live on by only a fraction of a millimeter, or even much smaller
distances, across the higher-dimensional bulk. Such neighboring 3-branes may be distant folds of
our own 3-brane, with the same physics, but able to influence us across shortcuts through the
bulk. Or they may be completely separate 3-branes possessing their own fundamental laws and
parameters of nature that are completely different from our own. Several tabletop Cavendishtype
experiments are now looking for sub-millimeter deviations from Newtonian gravitation as a
first step towards verifying 3-brane theory, and other experiments are now being planned or are
already underway (Pease, 2001). At present the preliminary experimental results have been
negative for the existence of extra space dimensions, and the experimental data suggests that two
extra space dimensions are now constrained to length scales << 0.2 – 0.3 millimeters while seven
extra space dimensions can be no larger than 2 femtometers (Pease, 2001).
¾ Parallel Universes/Parallel Spaces (Everett, 1957; Wheeler, 1957, 1962; DeWitt, 1970; DeWitt
and Graham, 1973; Jammer, 1974; Davies, 1980; Wolf, 1988; Kaku, 1994; Visser, 1995 and
Section 2.1): There are only two other research tracts that are concerned with parallel universes
besides 3-brane theory. The first tract is the traversable wormhole research that was discussed in
Section 2.1. Traversable wormholes can connect many different universes in the “multiverse”
(i.e., a conglomeration of many universes), and these are called inter-universe wormholes.
However, traversable wormhole physics (a.k.a. Einstein’s General Relativity Theory) does not
provide a physical prescription for the existence and nature (i.e., fundamental parameters and
physical laws) of other putative universes. The difference between inter-universe and intrauniverse
(i.e., two distant regions of one universe are connected with each other) wormholes
arises only at the level of global geometry and global topology. Local physics near the throat of a
traversable wormhole is insensitive to issues of intra-universal or inter-universal travel. An
observer in the vicinity of the throat, while making local measurements, would not be able to tell
whether he was traveling to another universe or to a remote part of our own universe. And one
cannot rely on the topological (as opposed to geometrical) information to determine which is the
case, because topological information is not enough to uniquely characterize an inter-universe
connection. And General Relativity Theory does not fix the topology of spacetime, so we cannot
ascertain the existence of other universes. [Note: Traversable wormholes are also geometrically
possible for higher dimensional spaces.] The second tract is the “Many Worlds” interpretation of
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quantum theory. This version of quantum theory requires the simultaneous existence of an
infinite number of equally real worlds, all of which are more-or-less causally disjoint, in order to
interpret consistently the relationship between observed phenomena and observers. The theory
was proposed in an attempt to overcome a number of deep paradoxes inherent in the
interpretation of the theory of measurement and quantum theory. The Many Worlds theory
argues that quantum theory requires the existence of a “superspace” of worlds spanning the range
of all possible quantum observations (or quantum measurements). Through our acts of
measurement we are imagined to trace a path through the mesh of possible outcomes. All the
“worlds” are causally disjoint, and the uncertainty of quantum observation can be interpreted as
an artifact of our access to such a limited portion of the superspace of possible worlds. The
evolution in the superspace as a whole is entirely deterministic.
At present, none of the theoretical concepts outlined above have been brought to a level of technical
maturity, where it becomes meaningful to ascertain whether any form of e-Teleportation is theoretically
possible between extra space dimensions and different or parallel universes/spaces. However, as
mentioned in the item on parallel universes/parallel spaces, there is the exception that traversable
wormholes (three- and higher-dimensional) provide a solid physics principle for the implementation of
teleportation between parallel universes/spaces. And traversable wormholes can be devised to connect 3-
branes together. See Section 2.1 for the discussion on teleportation via traversable wormholes. Also,
Kaluza-Klein theories, superstring theories and D-brane theory all have the common feature that their
extra space dimensions are ≤ 10−35 m in extent, which makes it impossible for any useful form of
macroscopic-level teleportation to occur between space dimensions. Last, it is not yet possible to do
theoretical calculations or even experimentally verify most of these theories. Three-brane theory is the
best parallel space theory there is, with the possibility that macroscopic-level teleportation is possible
between space dimensions (only if the extra space dimension(s) has length scale(s) >> millimeters). But
this theory is still in the stage of maturing theoretically and achieving experimental verification (or
falsification). Therefore, we can go no further in this section.
4.2 Vacuum Hole Teleportation
An unusual teleportation concept has been proposed by Leshan (1999, 2002), which describes the
teleportation of objects throughout our universe by using the geometrical properties of spacetime. The
proposal posits that there is a “zero-space” that exists outside the boundary of our universe, whereby this
zero-space is a “point form” space, where the distance between any two points is always equal to zero.
Leshan also calls this space a “hole.” Further requirements and assumptions of the model are:
‰ time does not exist as a property in zero-space
‰ the cosmological principle (i.e., there are no privileged frames relative to another place or point in
the universe) requires that the boundary or border of the universe must pass through every point
of space
‰ virtual holes (or zero-space) in spacetime must exist at every point of the universe, which are also
called “vacuum holes”
‰ vacuum holes exist as virtual particles
The last item is interesting because it implicitly says that vacuum holes (a.k.a. zero-space) must also be
virtual particles, and in Section 2.2 we showed that virtual particles are a representation of the vacuum
ZPF. Therefore, this infers that vacuum holes can be considered to be vacuum zero-point fluctuations in
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Leshan’s model. Thus, a teleportation mechanism can arise in this model because distances between
zero-space and any other point in the universe are zero, so that the vacuum holes can potentially exist at
every point in the universe simultaneously. Therefore, if an object is sent “out of the universe” and into a
vacuum hole (a.k.a. zero-space), then the object can appear at random at any spacetime point in the
universe.
The mechanism for teleportation in this model is:
¾ to send an object outside of the universe by creating a closed surface (i.e., “hole sphere”), which
consists of vacuum holes, around the object;
¾ while inside the hole sphere, the object then ceases to exist because objects cannot really exist
outside of the universe;
¾ however, the object simultaneously exists at any other remote location in the universe (via the
cosmological principle) at the instant it became enclosed by the hole sphere;
¾ therefore, it has been teleported to some remote location in the universe
Leshan points out that the teleportation device must curve spacetime so that the starting and destination
points in the universe coincide, and the curved geometry must be similar to that of a black hole for an
instant, so that a channel between the two points can be formed. (This sounds suspiciously like creating a
traversable wormhole via an Einstein-Rosen bridge, which can be made traversable by perturbing the
Schwarzschild spacetime metric an infinitesimal amount.) There is no space to traverse, so therefore
there will be no passage of time during teleportation. The only expenditure of energy in this teleportation
scheme is the energy that will be needed to curve spacetime.
This teleportation concept is very convoluted. Leshan does not offer any further explanations that
are useful nor does he offer any precise technical description for the vacuum holes, and how they are to be
produced and manipulated. There is also no mathematical physics derivation published by Leshan to
support this concept. I am totally unable to evaluate this concept in the absence of a rigorous theoretical
framework. This concept is too sketchy and full of technical “holes” to seriously consider it any further
for this study. The reader should note that it has already been demonstrated that traversable wormholes
are the best physical principle available to implement teleportation between universes and extra space
dimensions.
4.3 Conclusion and Recommendations
At present, none of the theoretical concepts explored in this chapter have been brought to a level of
technical maturity, where it becomes meaningful to ascertain whether any form of e-Teleportation is
theoretically possible between extra space dimensions and different or parallel universes/spaces.
However, there is the exception that traversable wormholes (three- and higher-dimensional) provide a
solid physics principle for the implementation of teleportation between parallel universes/spaces. And
traversable wormholes can be devised to connect 3-branes together. Kaluza-Klein, superstring and Dbrane
theories do not allow for any useful form of macroscopic-level teleportation to occur between space
dimensions, because these theories require that the extra space dimensions be ≤ 10−35 m in extent. Last, it
is not yet possible to do theoretical calculations to make predictions or even to experimentally verify most
of these theories. Three-brane theory is the best parallel space theory there is with the possibility that
macroscopic-level teleportation is possible between space dimensions. But this theory is still in the stage
of maturing theoretically and getting experimental verification.
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•Recommendations:
¾ The recommendations outlined in Section 2.3 are relevant to the investigation of the possibility
for e-Teleportation.
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5.0 p-TELEPORTATION
5.1 PK Phenomenon
P-Teleportation is a form of psychokinesis (or PK) similar to telekinesis but generally used to
designate the movement of objects (called apports) through other physical objects or over great distances.
Telekinesis is a form of PK, which describes the movement of stationary objects without the use of any
known physical force. And PK is essentially the direct influence of mind on matter without any known
intermediate physical energy or instrumentation. Rigorously controlled modern scientific laboratory PK,
and related psychic (a.k.a. “psi”, “paranormal” or parapsychology), research has been performed and/or
documented by Rhine (1970), Schmidt (1974), Mitchell (1974a, b, see also the references cited therein),
Swann (1974), Puthoff and Targ (1974, 1975), Hasted et al. (1975), Targ and Puthoff (1977), Nash (1978,
see also the references cited therein), Shigemi et al. (1978), Hasted (1979), Houck (1984a), Wolman et al.
(1986, see also the references cited therein), Schmidt (1987), Alexander et al. (1990), Giroldini (1991),
Gissurarson (1992), Radin (1997, see also the references cited therein), Tart et al. (2002), Shoup (2002),
and Alexander (2003).
A well-known theoretical/experimental/operational program directed by H. E. Puthoff, R. Targ, E.
May and I. Swann was conducted at SRI International and the NSA, and sponsored at various times by
the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), and the Army
Intelligence and Security Command (INSCOM) over more than two decades; and the program was later
carried on by E. May at SAIC (Alexander, 1980; Puthoff, 1996; Targ, 1996; Schnabel, 1997; Tart et al.,
2002). This was called the Remote Viewing program, and it was a compartmentalized special access
program possessing a variety of codenames during its 22 years of operation. Remote viewing involves
precognition and clairvoyance, and it allows a practitioner to acquire information irrespective of
intervening distance or time. The Remote Viewing program ended in 1994 and President W. J. Clinton
officially declassified it in 1995. The reader should note that the very first U. S. military-intelligence
R&D programs on psi, PK and mind control were conducted by H. K. (Andrija) Puharich, M.D., L.L.D
during his military service at the Army Chemical and Biological Warfare Center at Fort Detrick,
Maryland in the 1940s-50s. Puharich had an interest in clairvoyance and PK, and dabbled in theories for
electronically and pharmaceutically enhancing and synthesizing psychic abilities. While in the Army,
Puharich took part in a variety of parapsychology experiments, and he lectured Army, Air Force and
Navy groups on possibilities for mind warfare. He was a recognized expert in hypnotism and
microelectronics.
PK phenomenon was also explored in the Remote Viewing program. Col. J. B. Alexander (USA ret.)
credits professional aerospace engineer Jack Houck for “capturing PK phenomenon and transitioning it
into an observable form” (Houck, 1982, 1984a, b; Alexander et al., 1990; Alexander, 2003). During the
past three decades, Houck (along with Alexander) held a number of PK sessions, whereby attendees are
taught the PK induction process, and initiate their own PK events using various metal specimens (forks,
spoons, etc.). Individuals were able to completely bend or contort their metal specimens with no physical
force being applied whatsoever. Numerous government science advisors and senior military officials
took part in and/or witnessed these events, which took place at the Pentagon, at officers’ or scientists’
homes, and at one quarterly INSCOM retreat attended by the commanding general and a group of
colonels and generals commanding INSCOM units around the globe. Spontaneous deformation of the
metal specimens was observed at the PK session conducted during the INSCOM retreat, causing a great
deal of excitement among those present. Other notable trained observers were also present at this session,
and they critically reviewed the events. Psychic Uri Geller (1975) is the original model for demonstrating
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PK metal bending. During a talk that he gave at the U.S. Capitol building, Uri caused a spoon to curve
upward with no force applied, and then the spoon continued to bend after he put it back down and
continued with his talk (Alexander, 1996). Jack Houck continues doing extensive experimental work and
data collection on micro- and macro-PK phenomena. Scientifically controlled PK experiments at the
Princeton University Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory were conducted by Robert Jahn (Dean
Emeritus of the School of Engineering), who reported that repeatedly consistent results in mentally
affecting material substances has been demonstrated in the lab (Jahn and Dunne, 1987). In the 1980s,
Jahn attended a meeting on the PK topic at the Naval Research Laboratory, and warned that foreign
adversaries could exploit micro- or macro-PK to induce U.S. military fighter pilots to lose control of their
aircraft and crash.
Very early investigations of, and experiments on, p-Teleportation occurred during the 19th and early
20th centuries. Many cases that were studied, and the experiments that were performed, were undoubtedly
due to fraud, and few experiments have occurred under controlled conditions during that period.
However, most of the credible, scientific reports of p-Teleportation phenomenon and related (controlled)
experiments occurred in the late 20th century (see for example, Alexander et al., 1990; Radin, 1997).
Some of that scientific work involved the investigation of Uri Geller and a variety of other recurrent
spontaneous PK phenomena (Hasted et al., 1975; Puthoff and Targ, 1975; Targ and Puthoff, 1977; Nash,
1978; Wolman et al., 1986). Psychics Uri Geller (1975) and Ray Stanford (1974) claimed to have been
teleported on several occasions. Most claimed instances of human teleportation of the body from one
place to another have been unwitnessed. There are also a small number of credible reports of individuals
who reported being teleported to/from UFOs during a UFO close encounter, which were scientifically
investigated (Vallee, 1988, 1990, 1997). But there are a larger number of such reports that are anecdotal,
whereby the witness data tends to be unreliable. However, we will confine our discussion to the
controlled laboratory experiments that have been performed and reported.
One of the more interesting examples of controlled experiments with Uri Geller was one in which he
was able to cause a part of a vanadium carbide crystal to vanish (Hasted et al., 1975). The crystal was
encapsulated so it could not be touched, and it was placed in such a way that it could not be switched with
another crystal by sleight of hand. A more spectacular series of rigorously controlled (and repeatable!)
laboratory experiments occurred in the Peoples Republic of China (PRC). In September 1981, an
extraordinary paper was published in the PRC in the journal Ziran Zazhi (transl.: Nature Journal), and this
paper was entitled, “Some Experiments on the Transfer of Objects Performed by Unusual Abilities of the
Human Body” (Shuhuang et al., 1981). The paper reported that gifted children were able to cause the
apparent teleportation of small objects (radio micro-transmitters, photosensitive paper, mechanical
watches, horseflies, other insects, etc.) from one location to another (that was meters away) without them
ever touching the objects beforehand. The experiments were operated under exceptionally wellcontrolled
conditions (both blind and double-blind). The researchers involved included not only
observers from various PRC colleges and medical research institutes, but also representatives from the
PRC National Defense Science Commission. Because of the involvement of the latter, it was deemed
necessary that an unclassified Intelligence Information Report be prepared by the DIA (see Shuhuang et
al., 1981), which included a detailed English translation of the article.
Additional research carried out by the Aerospace Medicine Engineering Institute in Beijing was
reported in the July 1990 issue of the Chinese Journal of Somatic Science (Kongzhi et al., 1990; Jinggen
et al., 1990; Banghui, 1990), which was also translated into English by the DIA. Reported in several
articles are experiments involving the videotaping and high-speed photography of the transfer of test
specimens (nuts, bundles of matches, pills, nails, thread, photosensitive paper, chemically treated paper,
sponges dipped in FeCl3, etc.) through the walls of sealed paper envelopes, double layered KCNS type
paper bags, sealed glass bottles and tubes with sealed caps, and sealed plastic film canisters without the
walls of any of these containers being breached. All of the Chinese experiments reported using gifted
children and young adults, who possessed well-known extraordinary PK ability, to cause the teleportation
of the various test specimens. In all the experimental cases that were reported, the test specimens that
were teleported were completely unaltered or unchanged from their initial state, even the insects were
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unaffected by being teleported. The experiments were well controlled, scientifically recorded, and the
experimental results were always repeatable.
The Chinese papers are all extremely interesting and very well written, and they show photographs
and schematic diagrams of the various experimental setups. The experimental protocols were explained
in lengthy detail, and thorough data and statistical analysis were presented in the results. The combined
results from the several Chinese experiments showed that:
¾ different research groups designed different experimental protocols, used different gifted
psychics, used different sealed containers, and used different test specimens (live insects, bulk
inanimate objects, and even radio micro-transmitters were used to track the location of the
specimens) that were to be teleported;
¾ the time required for the teleportation of test specimens through various barriers was anywhere
from a fraction of a second to several minutes, and this was not dependent on the test specimen
that was used, the sealed container that was used (or its barrier thickness), which experimental
protocol was used, or which psychic was being used
¾ the high-speed photography/videotaping recorded in one series of experiments that test specimens
would physically “meld” or blend with the walls of sealed containers; and recorded in a different
series of experiments that test specimens would simply disappear from inside the container only
to reappear at another location (after seconds to several minutes of time transpired), such that the
test specimen did not actually undergo total material disintegration/reintegration during
teleportation – this data is important, because without the aid of electronic monitoring
instruments, the average person’s sensory organs and usual methods of detection are temporarily
unable to perceive the test specimen’s (ambiguous) existence during the teleportation process;
¾ the radio micro-transmitter used as a test specimen in one series of experiments (Shuhuang et al.,
1981) transmitted a radio signal to several stationary electronic instruments/receivers, so that the
specimen could be tracked and monitored (via signal amplitude and frequency measurements)
during the teleportation process; the experimenters discovered that there was large fluctuations in
the intensity (in both amplitude and frequency) of the monitored signal to the effect that it would
either completely disappear or become extremely weak (to the extent that the monitoring
instruments could scarcely detect it) – it was discovered that there was a definite correlation
between the change in strength (i.e., radical frequency shifts were observed) of the monitored
radio signal and the teleportation of the test specimen, such that the weak or absent signal
indicated that the specimen was “nonexistent” (or in an altered physical state) during teleportation
(note: the monitored signal amplitude and frequency of the micro-transmitter specimen were
stable before and after teleportation);
¾ before and after “passing through the container wall/barrier”, the test specimen and the
container’s wall/barrier are both complete solid objects;
¾ the gifted psychics were never allowed to see (they were blindfolded in many experiments) or
touch each of the test specimens or the sealed containers before and after experiments were
conducted, and only the experimenters touched the specimens and containers (using both blind
and double-blind protocols);
¾ the experimental results were all repeatable
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¾ the conditions for fraud and sleight of hand were totally eliminated, and multiple independent
outside witnesses (technical and military-intelligence experts) were present at all times to ensure
total fidelity of the experiments
The experimental radio micro-transmitter and high-speed photography/videotaping data offer an
important clue on what the teleportation mechanism is, and this will be discussed further in Section 5.1.1.
The Chinese were unable to offer any significant physics hypothesis that could explain their results.
Some researchers stated that it is necessary to invoke a new physics, which somehow unifies the human
consciousness (i.e., physics of consciousness) with quantum and spacetime physics, in order to
understand p-Teleportation and related PK phenomena. The researchers were amazed by their repeated
results, and were barely able to fathom the altered “state of being” that test specimens underwent during
teleportation.
It is also important to point out that during the Cold War the DIA produced three (now declassified)
reports on the parapsychology research of the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pack allies (LaMothe, 1972;
Maire and LaMothe, 1975; DIA Report, 1978; other related studies were reported by Groller, 1986,
1987). The purpose of the reports was to collate and summarize collected intelligence, describe in great
detail, and assess the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact R&D on parapsychology and paraphysics. The
reports outlined the history of pre-revolutionary (Czarist) Russian, and WWII and post-WWII era Soviet
R&D on psychotronics, human mind/behavior control, and the entire spectrum of parapsychology. The
Soviet information also mentions the psychotronic/parapsychology R&D materials that Soviet military
forces took from various Nazi research centers in and around Germany at the end of WWII. The entire
spectrum of parapsychology phenomena was explored by the Soviets, which resulted in the generation of
a wealth of experimental data and related scientific research literature. One DIA report noted that there
was an East versus West science debate in the Soviet literature over whether paranormal phenomenon and
related experimental data was real or even scientifically sound in comparison to western scientific
practice and philosophy. Another DIA report lists the names and affiliations of all the researchers, as well
as the names of the various Soviet and Warsaw Pact research centers, that were involved. Also, Pratt
(1986) reviews and summarizes the history of Soviet psychotronics research.
The U.S. military-intelligence establishment was concerned with the possibility that the Soviets and
their Warsaw Pact allies were conducting psychotronics and mind control R&D in order to discover how
to exploit and control powerful phenomena that could be used against the U.S. and its allies. LaMothe
(1972) chronicled how the Soviets had been researching methods of influencing human behavior for over
sixty years. The Soviets and their allies extensively explored an influence technology that they called
“controlled offensive behavior”, which is defined as “research on human vulnerability as it applies to
methods of influencing or altering human behavior” (LaMothe, 1972). Also, LaMothe (1972) describes
the revolutionary techniques the Soviets studied to influence human behavior, which included: sound,
light, color, odors, sensory deprivation, sleep, electromagnetic fields, biochemicals, autosuggestion,
hypnosis, and parapsychology phenomena (such as psychokinesis, telekinesis, extrasensory perceptionESP,
astral projection, clairvoyance, precognition, and dream state, etc.). The LaMothe (1972) report
became an aid in the development of countermeasures for the protection of U.S. and/or allied personnel.
Psychotronics is the general term that was used in the former Soviet Union/Warsaw Pact countries to
categorize many psychic phenomena undergoing scientific research. The conclusions that were reached
in the DIA reports are that within the category of psychotronics, the Soviets identified two discrete skills
(LaMothe, 1972):
¾ bioenergetics: those phenomena associated with the production of objectively detectable effects
such as psychokinesis, telekinesis, levitation effects, transformations of energy, i.e. the altering or
affecting of matter
¾ bioinformation: those phenomena associated with the obtaining of information through means
other than the normal sensory channels (i.e., ESP), such as telepathy, precognition, and
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clairvoyance, i.e., using the mind to tap into the thoughts of others or to acquire present or future
information about objective events in the world
These phenomena involve using the mind and/or some “field” of the body to affect other minds and
inanimate objects irrespective of intervening distance or elapsed time, and without engaging any
conventional tools. Bioenergetics and bioinformation are two classifications that form a single branch of
science the Soviets preferred to call biocommunications. Soviet biocommunications research is primarily
concerned with exploring the existence of a definite group of natural phenomena controlled by laws that
are not based on any known (energetic) influence. The types of biocommunication (a.k.a. psychotronics)
phenomena includes special sensory biophysical activities, brain and mind control, telepathic
communications or bioinformation transceiving, bioluminescent and bioenergetic emissions, and the
effects of altered states of consciousness on the human psyche. Psychotronics and remote viewing
provide capabilities that have obvious intelligence applications. The Soviets and their Warsaw Pact allies
invested millions of dollars in psychotronics R&D because they understood this, and saw the potential
payoff for military and intelligence applications.
The U.S. response to Soviet psychotronics R&D programs was the Remote Viewing program. In
addition, the U.S. Army began the JEDI Project in 1983, which sought to increase human potential using
teachable models of behavioral/physical excellent by unconventional means (Alexander et al., 1990). The
JEDI Project was essentially a human-performance modeling experiment based on neuro-linguistic
programming (NLP) skills, whereby advanced influence technologies to model excellence in human
performance was used. The program ran under the auspices of the Army INSCOM and the
Organizational Effectiveness School, and was sponsored by a U.S. government interagency task force.
Finally, it should be pointed out that the program had successfully trained several hundred people,
including members of Congress (such as Al Gore, Jr. and Tom Downey), before being terminated.
There is a wealth of factual scientific research data from around the world attesting to the physical
reality of p-Teleportation and related anomalous psi phenomena (Mitchell, 1974b; Targ and Puthoff,
1977; Nash, 1978; Radin, 1997; Tart et al., 2002). The skeptical reader should not be so quick to dismiss
the subject matter in this chapter, because one must remain open-minded about this subject and consider
p-Teleportation as worthy of further scientific exploration. The psychotronics topic is controversial
within the western scientific community. The debate among scientists and scientific philosophers is
highly charged at times, and becomes acrimonious to the point where reputable skeptical scientists cease
being impartial by refusing to examine the experimental data or theories, and they prefer to bypass
rational discourse by engaging in ad hominem attacks and irrational “armchair” arguments.
P-Teleportation and related phenomena are truly anomalous, and they challenge accepted modern
scientific paradigm. Lightman and Gingerich (1991) wrote, “Scientists are reluctant to change paradigms
for the purely psychological reasons that the familiar is often more comfortable than the unfamiliar and
that inconsistencies in belief are uncomfortable.” And theories change over time when anomalies enter
the picture. Anomalies are particularly helpful for they point to the inadequacies of an old model and
point the way to a new one. Anomalous scientific facts are unexpected and difficult to explain within an
existing conceptual framework. Kuhn (1970) describes scientific discovery as a complex process, in
which an anomalous fact of nature is recognized, and then followed by a change in conceptual framework
(i.e., paradigm) that makes the new fact no longer an anomaly. Kuhn stated that, “Discovery commences
with the awareness of anomaly, that is, with the recognition that nature has somehow violated the preinduced
expectations that govern normal science.” This statement neatly describes exactly what
transpired during the historical revolution that took place in physics between the classical
mechanics/electrodynamics age in the 19th century and the quantum/atomic/nuclear/relativistic age in the
20th century. And this isn’t the only time in human history that scientific paradigms have dramatically
changed. The discovery of p-Teleportation already commenced in the 20th century, so let us continue the
discovery and create a new physics paradigm for the 21st century.
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5.1.1 Hypothesis Based on Mathematical Geometry
The Chinese researchers reported in their teleportation experiments that high-speed
photography/videotaping recorded test specimens physically “melding” or blending with the walls of
sealed containers, and in a different series of experiments the test specimens would simply disappear from
inside the container only to reappear at another location (after seconds to several minutes of time
transpired). They also reported in the series of radio micro-transmitter experiments that there were large
fluctuations in the intensity (in both amplitude and frequency) of the monitored signal to the effect that it
would either completely disappear or become extremely weak (to the extent that the monitoring
instruments could scarcely detect it); and they discovered that there was a definite correlation between the
change in strength (i.e., radical frequency shifts were observed) of the monitored radio signal and the
teleportation of the radio micro-transmitter, such that the weak or absent signal indicated that the
specimen was “nonexistent” (or in an altered physical state) during teleportation. This data is important
because without the aid of electronic monitoring instruments, the average person’s sensory organs and
usual methods of detection are temporarily unable to perceive the test specimen’s (ambiguous) existence
during the teleportation process. This data offers an important clue on what the teleportation mechanism
is.
It is beyond the scope of this study to propose a complete self-consistent physics theory of
consciousness/mind, which explains how the mind can activate p-Teleportation and related psychotronics
phenomena. This topic has been under study in recent decades by a legion of medical science, bio- and
neuro-physiology, psychology, mathematics, philosophy, and physics experts. Many different theories
with varying degree of theoretical maturity and self-consistency have been proposed over the years, and
most of them have not yet been experimentally tested for various reasons. However, some first-order
experimental work has been done (Mitchell, 1974b; Targ and Puthoff, 1977; Wolman et al., 1986; Radin,
1997; Tart et al., 2002). Ironically, quantum mechanics theory, and the related physics of quantum
entanglement and teleportation, has become the primary focus of all of the physics theories of
consciousness/psychotronics that have been recently proposed (see for example, Shan, 2003). Wolman et
al. (1986) and Radin (1997) provide a review and discussion on recent theories and experiments that are
based on quantum physics theory (see also, Walker, 1974; Targ and Puthoff, 1977; Mitchell, 1999, and
the references cited therein; Tart et al., 2002). It appears that the physics of q-Teleportation (Chapter 3)
has tremendous relevance to the physics of p-Teleportation and psychotronics.
In the following I propose a parsimonious first-order hypothesis that can explain the gross features of
both the Chinese p-Teleportation data and the other reported p-Teleportation phenomena. But I will
refrain from including any role that might be played by quantum phenomena since the scientific
community has not yet settled that particular issue. (However, it is apparent that quantum theory and
quantum phenomena will likely play a key role in a formal physics theory of PK and psychotronics.)
First-Order Hypothesis:
‰ Fact 1: The mature discipline of mathematical geometry developed the properties of higher
dimensional spaces (Reichenbach, 1957; Manning, 1977; Rucker, 1977). An example of one
such property that is of relevance to the hypothesis: One can visualize a four-dimensional world
by using color as the 4th dimension. We can think of a three-dimensional world, whereby objects
pass through one another if their colors (i.e., four-dimensional locations) are different
(Reichenbach, 1957). For example, color can be used as a 4th dimension to see how a knot in
three-dimensions can be untied in a 4th spatial dimension without moving the ends of the cord.
That is because a cord cannot stay knotted in four-dimensional space, because the extra degree of
freedom will cause any knot to slip through itself. Two other interesting and relevant examples
are that the links of a chain may be separated unbroken in the 4th dimension, and a flexible sphere
may be turned inside out without tearing in the 4th dimension (Manning, 1977; Rucker, 1977).
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‰ Proposition 1 and Fact 2: It has been proposed that our space actually possesses a slight fourdimensional
hyperthickness, so that the ultimate components of our nervous system are actually
higher dimensional, thus enabling the human mind/brain to imagine four-dimensional space
(Hinton, 1888, 1904; Rucker, 1977). If this is the case, then the three-dimensional nets of
neurons that code thoughts in our brain may form four-dimensional patterns to achieve fourdimensional
thought. The “bulk” space in 3-brane theory (see Section 4.1), and experimental
data from the Remote Viewing program (see Section 5.1), provide support for this concept. Can
we see into the 4th dimension and have four-dimensional thoughts? Yes, we can. Proof (see,
Rucker, 1977, 1984): If you look at a Necker cube for a while, it spontaneously turns into its
mirror image and back again. If you watch it do this often enough, the twinkling sort of motion
from one state to the other begins to seem like a continuous motion. But this motion can only be
continuous if it is a rotation in four-dimensional space. The mathematician August F. Möbius
discovered in 1827 that it is in fact possible to turn a three-dimensional solid object into its mirror
image by an appropriate rotation through four-dimensional space (a.k.a. hyperspace rotation).
Thus, it is actually possible for our minds to perform such a rotation. Therefore, we can actually
produce four-dimensional phenomenon in our minds, so our consciousness is four-dimensional.
Rucker (1984) shows another dramatic example of being able to see into the 4th dimension via a
“Neck-A-Cube.”
‰ Fact 3: Another property of higher dimensional geometry (Reichenbach, 1957; Rucker, 1977,
1984) is that one can move through solid three-dimensional obstacles without penetrating them
by passing in the direction of the 4th (spatial) dimension. The 4th dimension is perpendicular to all
of our normal three-dimensional space directions, and so our three-dimensional enclosures have
no walls against this direction.
‰ Conclusion and Hypothesis: Therefore, the results of the Chinese p-Teleportation experiments
can simply be explained as a human consciousness phenomenon that somehow acts to move or
rotate test specimens through a 4th spatial dimension, so that the specimens are able to penetrate
the solid walls/barriers of their containers without physically breaching them. No real
dematerialization/rematerialization of the specimens takes place. The intensity fluctuations of the
radio micro-transmitter specimen’s electromagnetic signal, and the apparent blending of the other
specimens with the walls of their containers, represent the passage of the specimens through a 4th
spatial dimension. During teleportation the radio signals emitted by the micro-transmitter became
weak/non-existent and fluctuated, because they were spreading out into the 4th dimension and
became undetectable in our three-dimensional space. The weak signals that were (“barely”)
detected represent the leakage of a portion of the radio signal back into our three-dimensional
space from the 4th dimension during teleportation. The observed blending of the other specimens
with the walls of their containers is how the movement/rotation of the specimens through the 4th
dimension was visually interpreted by the mind (along the lines of the Necker cube or Neck-ACube
examples).
5.2 Conclusion and Recommendations
We will need a physics theory of consciousness and psychotronics, along with more experimental
data, in order to test the hypothesis in Section 5.1.1 and discover the physical mechanisms that lay behind
the psychotronic manipulation of matter. P-Teleportation, if verified, would represent a phenomenon that
could offer potential high-payoff military, intelligence and commercial applications. This phenomenon
could generate a dramatic revolution in technology, which would result from a dramatic paradigm shift in
science. Anomalies are the key to all paradigm shifts!
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•Recommendations:
¾ There are numerous supporters within the U.S. military establishment who comprehend the
significance of remote viewing and PK phenomenon, and believe that they could have strategic
implications. Bremseth (2001), a U.S. Navy SEAL, attended the Marine War College and studied
the Remote Viewing program, and interviewed many of the former program participants.
Bremseth then wrote his thesis on the topic, and concluded that the evidence supported continued
research and applications of remote viewing. A research program improving on and expanding,
or implementing novel variations of, the Chinese and Uri Geller-type experiments should be
conducted in order to generate p-Teleportation phenomenon in the lab. The performances and
characteristics of p-Teleportation need to be delineated in order to develop a refined hypothesis.
Such a program should be designed so that an operational model for p-Teleportation can be
developed and implemented as a prototype. An experimental program similar in fashion to the
Remote Viewing program should be funded at $900,000 – 1,000,000 per year in parallel with a
theoretical program funded at $500,000 per year for an initial five-year duration. The role of
quantum physics theory and related quantum phenomena (i.e., entanglement and teleportation) in
p-Teleportation and psychotronics should be explored in this program (see for example, the
Biological Quantum Teleportation recommendation in Section 3.3). An experiment definition
study should be conducted first to identify and propose the best experiments for this program,
which should be funded at $80,000 for one year.
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APPENDIX A – A Few Words About Negative Energy
A.1 A General Relativistic Definition of Negative or Exotic Energy
We saw in equations (2.10a-c) that the surface energy and stress-tension densities of the material
required to create and thread a traversable wormhole must be “negative.” For surface stress-energy, and
volume stress-energy in general, this is “negative” in the sense that the material we must deploy to
generate and thread the traversable wormhole must have an energy density (ρc
2
, ρ = mass density) that is
less than the stress-energy density (τ), or we can write this condition as: mass-energy ρc
2 ≤ stress-energy
τ. On the basis of this condition, we call this material property “exotic.” Therefore, the term “negative”
is just a misnomer in this context. The condition for ordinary, non-exotic forms of matter that we are all
familiar with is mass-energy ρc
2
> stress-energy τ. This condition represents one version of what is
variously called the weak (WEC), null (NEC), average (AEC), dominant (DEC), strong (SEC) or
“standard” energy conditions (that are mere hypotheses!), which allegedly forbid negative mass-energy
density and gravitational repulsion (antigravity) between material objects to occur in nature. Hawking
and Ellis (1973) formulated these energy conditions in order to establish a series of mathematical proofs
in their study of the application of general relativity theory to cosmology and black hole physics.
However, there are general theorems of differential geometry that guarantee that there must be NEC
violations (meaning exotic matter-energy is present) at a wormhole throat (Visser, 1997). In view of this,
it is known that static radial electric or magnetic fields are borderline exotic when threading a wormhole,
if their tension were infinitesimally larger, for a given energy density (Herrmann, 1989; Hawking and
Ellis, 1973). Other exotic (energy condition violating) matter-energy fields are known to be squeezed
quantum states of the electromagnetic field and other squeezed quantum fields (see Section A.2 for the
discussion on squeezed quantum states), gravitationally squeezed vacuum electromagnetic zero-point
energy (see Section 2.3 for the discussion on Gravitationally Squeezed Vacuum Energy), Casimir
(electromagnetic zero-point) energy and other quantum fields/states/effects. These examples represent
forms of matter-energy that possess negative energy density. Since the vacuum is defined to have
vanishing energy density, anything possessing less energy density than the vacuum must have a negative
energy density. With respect to creating wormholes, these have the unfortunate reputation of alarming
physicists. This is unfounded since all the energy condition hypotheses have been experimentally tested
in the laboratory and experimentally shown to be false - 25 years before their formulation (Visser, 1990
and references cited therein). Further investigation into this technical issue showed that violations of the
energy conditions are widespread for all forms of both classical and quantum matter-energy such as
planets, stars, black holes, neutron stars, people, space dust clouds, etc. (Davis, 1999b; Barcelo and
Visser, 2002). In addition, Visser (1995) showed that all (generic) spacetime geometries violate all the
energy conditions. Violating the energy conditions commits no offense against nature.
A.2 Squeezed Quantum States and Negative Energy
In quantum mechanics the energy (E) and frequency (ν) of a quantum oscillator system, such as
electromagnetic radiation (or light), are interchangeable via the Planck relation E = hν (h = 2πħ). And
from the Heisenberg quantum uncertainty principle, we know that the conjugate variable to the frequency
is the oscillator phase (ϕ), such that ∆ν∆ϕ ≥ ħ is obeyed. Phase is difficult to measure and is ignored in
characterizing complex quantum systems.
Recent theoretical and experimental work has shown that in many quantum systems the limits to
measurement precision imposed by the quantum vacuum zero-point fluctuations (ZPF) can be breached
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74
by decreasing the frequency noise at the expense of increasing the phase noise (thus maintaining ∆ν∆ϕ ≥
ħ), while at the same time the variations in frequency, and therefore the energy, are reduced below the
ZPF such that the energy becomes “negative.” “Squeezing” is thus the control of quantum fluctuations
and corresponding uncertainties, whereby one can squeeze the variance of one (physically important)
observable quantity provided the variance in the (physically unimportant) conjugate variable is
stretched/increased. The squeezed quantity possesses an unusually low variance, meaning less variance
than would be expected on the basis of the equipartition theorem. We can exploit quantum squeezing to
extract energy from one place in the ordinary vacuum at the expense of piling up excess energy elsewhere
(Morris and Thorne, 1988).
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75
Appendix B – THεµ Methodology
In the formalism of the THεµ methodology, the functions T and H are introduced by requiring that the
Lagrangian for the motion of particles (with charge ea and mass m0a for the a
th particle), under the joint
action of gravity and the electromagnetic field Aα (α ≡ spacetime vector components), be expressed in the
canonical form
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 2 12 3
0 8 a a aa
a
L m T Hv e A v dt d x dt α
α π εµ − − =− −+ + + ∑∫ ∫ E B (B.1);
where the arbitrary functions T, H, ε, and µ are functions of the metric (a.k.a. gravitation field), va
α
is the
a
th particle four-vector velocity, and Aα is the electromagnetic field four-vector potential, E and B are the
electric and magnetic field strengths, and (B.1) is in geometrodynamic natural units (ħ = c0 = G = ε0 = µ0
= 1). The Lagrangian characterizes the motion of charged particles in an external gravitational field by
the two functions T and H, and characterizes the response of the electromagnetic fields to the external
gravitational field by the two functions ε and µ. For all standard (metric) theories of gravity, the four
functions are related by
H
T ε µ = = (B.2);
and every metric theory of gravity satisfies this relation, such that the Einstein Equivalence Principle is
satisfied.
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Urbana, IL 61801
Dr. Eric E. Rice (1 CD)
Orbital Technologies Corp.
402 Gammon Place, Suite 10
Madison, WI 53719
Marc Millis (1 CD)
NASA Glenn Research Center
M.S. SPTD-2
21000 Brookpark Road, MS: 86-2
Cleveland, OH 44135
Dr. Aurthur Morrish (1 CD)
DARPA/ATO
3701 N. Fairfax Dr.
Arlington, VA 22203
Dr. George Schmidt (1 CD)
NASA HQ
300 E. Street SW
Washington, DC 20546
Dr. Paul Murad (1 CD)
Sr. Analyst, Director for Intel Production
Missile & Space Intel Center
Defense Intelligence Agency
Washington, DC 20340-6054
Steve Squires (1 CD)
Directorate of Applied Technology
Test and Simulation
STEWS-DATTS-OO
WSMR, NM 88002
Dr. Brian Palaszewski ( 1 CD)
NASA Glenn Research Center
21000 Brookpartk Road, MS: 5-10
Cleveland, OH 44135
Robert Talley (1 CD)
Topaz 2000, Inc
3380 Sheridan Dr.
Suite 172
Amherst, NY 14226
Dr. Alan Pike (1 CD)
DSAS
1988 Crescent Park Drive
Reston, VA 20190
Dr. Kenneth D. Ware (1 CD)
Defense Nuclear Agency
Simulation Technology
6801 Telegraph Road
Alexandria, VA 22310
Dr. Dennis Pelaccio (1 CD)
SAIC
8100 Shaffer Parkway, Suite 100
Littleton, CO 80127
Dr. Feiedwardt Winterberg (1 CD)
University of Nevada
Desert Research Institute
Reno, NV 89507
Ben Plenge (1 CD)
101 W. Eglin Blvd
Suite 342
Eglin AFB, FL 32542-6810
Dr. Young Bae (1 CD)
1101 Bryan Ave.
Suite C
Tustin, CA 92780
Dr. James Powell (1 CD)
Plus Ultra Technologies, Inc.
25 East Loop Rd.
Stony Brook, NY 11970-3350
Dr. Thomas M York (1 CD)
1215 Inverary Pl.
State College, PA 16801
Mr. Charles A. Yost (1 CD)
Electric Spacecraft Journal
73 Sunlight Drive
Leicester, NC 28748
Dr. Robert J. Barker (1CD)
AFOSR/NE
801 N. Randolf St.
Arlington, VA 22203